INCIDENCE OF DEFORESTATION AMONG THE POPULACE AND ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Conceptual framework

Definition of Forest

Defining what constitutes a forest is not easy as forest types differ widely. It should also be kept in mind that, different definitions are required for different purposes and at differentscales.Abasicdefinitionofaforestisthat,it’sanecosystemorassemblageof ecosystems dominated by trees and other woody vegetation. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) however, provides a more comprehensive definition of the term. According to FAO (2010), a forest is a land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters anda canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds situated naturally anduninterrupted.

The FAO provided some criteria as to what a forest is and these include:

1. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use. Forest is determined both by the presence of trees and the absence of other pre dominant land uses. The trees should be able to reach a minimum height of 5 meters in situ.

1. Includes areas with young trees that have not yet reached but which are expected to reach a canopy cover of 10 percent and tree height of 5 meters. It also includes areas that are temporarily not stocked due to clear-cutting as part of a forest management practice or natural disasters, and which are expected to be regenerated within 5 years. Localconditionsmay,inexceptionalcases,justifythatalongertimeframeisused.
2. Includes forest roads, firebreaks and other small open areas; forest in national parks, nature reserves and other protected areas such as those of specific environmental, scientific, historical, cultural or spiritualinterest.
3. Includeswindbreaks,shelterbeltsandcorridorsoftreeswithanareaofmorethan0.5 hectares and width of more than 20meters.
4. Includesabandonedshiftingcultivationlandwitharegenerationoftreesthathave,or isexpectedtoreach,acanopycoverof10percentandtreeheightof5meters.
5. Includes areas with mangroves in tidal zones, regardless whether this area is classified as land area ornot.
6. Includes rubber-wood, cork oak and Christmas treeplantations.
7. Includes areas with bamboo and palms provided that land use, height and canopy cover criteria aremet.
8. Excludestreestandsinagriculturalproductionsystems,suchasfruittreeplantations, oil palm plantations and agroforestry systems when crops are grown under tree cover. Note: Some agroforestry systems such as the “Taungya” system where crops are grown only during the first years of the forest rotation should be classified asforest.

1. Livelihood

Carney (1998: 4) defines a livelihood as “the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living”. The assets are defined as capitals (natural, human, financial, physical and social) and more than just being simply the means to make a living with, they also give value to people’s life. This definition incorporates attributes such as: getting the basic requirement of living (food, shelter, clothing, money); capabilities or capacities, which are based on equityof resources and participatory decision making (Hiremath and Raju,2004).

One of the widely accepted definitions of a livelihood system is from the work of Chambers and Conway (1992) which defined the concept to comprise people, their capabilities and their means of living, including food, income and assets. The authors indicate that livelihood has a tripartite relationship where people survive by using their capabilities to make productive uses of their assets, which are both tangible (resources and stores) and intangible (claims and access). Ellis (2000) also defines livelihood as the activities, the assets and the access that jointly determine the living gained by the individual or household. What is common to the three views is the ability of people to undertake activities and own assets to guarantee them decent living conditions.

Aduse-Poku et al., (2003) posits that livelihood is much more than a job. It covers the wide and diverse range of things people do, comprising the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living. In most situations resources found within one’s immediate vicinity will provide a livelihood or the means of making a living, which is true of most rural dwellers in Nigeria. A livelihood framework is the tool used to analyze and improve understanding of livelihoods. Many livelihood frameworks have been used over the years to explain the concept of livelihood; however, in this research, the DFID livelihood framework and the rural sustainable concept have been used to explain some of the basic elements of livelihood. The framework presents the main factors that affect people’s livelihoods and typical relationship between them. In particular, theframework:

• Provides a check on important issues and sketches out the way these link to eachother;
• Draws attention to core influence and processes;and
• Emphasizes the multiple interactions between the various factors which affectlivelihoods.

From the framework (fig 2.1), there are five basic capital assets upon which livelihoods are built; Financial, physical, human, social and natural. Financial capital denotes the financial resources that people use to achieve their livelihood objectives. There are two main sources of financial capital; available stocks and regular inflows of money. Physical capital comprises the basic infrastructure and producer goods needed to support livelihoods. Infrastructure includes affordable transport, adequate water supply and sanitation, affordable energy, and access to communication. The human capital represents the skills, knowledge, ability to labour and good health that together enable people to pursue different livelihood strategies and achieve their livelihood objectives.

2.2 Livelihoods in Forest Fringe Communities inNigeria

Most forest fringe communities are rural in nature and that, the rural economy is primarily agricultural although some trading, small-scale production and food processing, collection and processing of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and services take place in the community (Abane, 2009). Some of the dominant livelihood activities include farming (crop production and animal rearing.), gathering, hunting, trading and craft making. Among these livelihood activities, crop production and animal rearing are the most common source of livelihoods for most rural dwellers.

Gathering is a seasonal livelihood activity since most of the items collected do not appear throughout the year. These products are usually gathered in the forest and are called Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). Examples include snails, mushrooms, canes, raffia and leafy vegetables. They are particularly important among the rural poor who have access to few resources beyond the forest. Hunting is another form of livelihood, mainly practiced by males. Small rodents are hunted during the day and bigger animals hunted during the night. Women are normally not involved Aduse-Poku et al (2003). This livelihood depends on the continued existence of suitable wildlife habitats. With the introduction of commercialisation, trading has become very popular in most rural economies. Items traded in include food, crops, local and imported products. Women and the youth used to do most of the selling; however the trend is now changing since more men are getting involved. In some villages and towns cottage industries such as pottery, woodcarving, soap making, basket weaving, cloth making, wood industry, palm oil extraction and food processing e.g. corn or rice mill are found. Some rural dwellers that have some form of formal training are employed in the public services such as teaching, nursing, or in providing services to the public. These people may be few due to lower levels of education in the rural areas (Aduse-Poku et al., 2003).

2.3 Deforestation

Deforestation is the conversion of forest to an alternative permanent non-forested land use such as agriculture, grazing or urban development (van Kooten and Bulte, 2000). Deforestation is primarily a concern for the developing countries of the tropics (Myers, 1994). Roseann (1990), also defined deforestation as the process by which land is cleared of forests or trees. Deforestation, which is sometimes euphemistically called “timber extraction”, occurs throughout the developed and developing world and can be seen as a by-product of industrialization and development process.

Forests cover almost a third of the earth’s land surface providing many environmental benefits including a major role in the hydrologic cycle, soil conservation and prevention of climate change and preservation of biodiversity (Sheram,1993).

Forest resources can provide long-term national economic benefits. For example, at least 145 countries of the world are currently involved in wood production. Sufficient evidence is available that the whole world is facing an environmental crisis on account of heavy deforestation. For years remorseless destruction of forests has been going on and we have not been able to comprehend the dimension until recently. Nobody knows exactly how much of the world’s rainforests have already been destroyed and continue to be razed each year. Data is often imprecise and subject to differing interpretations. However, it is obvious that the area of tropical rainforest is diminishing and the rate of tropicalrainforestdestructionisescalatingworldwide,despiteincreasedenvironmental activism and awareness (Anon,1994a).

The spate of deforestation at the global, continent (i.e. Africa) and national levels (i.e. Nigeria) are discussed under sub-sections 2.5.1, 2.5.2 and 2.5.3 respectively

1. Causes ofDeforestation

In Nigeria, the major causes of deforestation are the result of a number of economic activities: legal and illicit logging, clearing trees to increase arable land, fuel wood extractionandmining.Thesecausesaredifferentiatedacrossthevariousforestzonesin the country, however in the south, timber exploitation, mining and agriculture expansion have been identified as predominant causes (Boafo, 2012), while in the north, unsustainable charcoal and firewood production, forest fires and agriculture expansion (again) are the major causes (Agyeman et al, 2012). Without realistic mitigation policies and coordination on a national level, these activities and their deforestation consequences are likely to continue and even increase as Nigeria’s growing population demands more forest products and land area for settlements, construction, energy and food (Amisah et al,2009).

In fact, the causes of deforestation are many and some of them are summarized under the following subsections below:

1. Expansion of farminglands

About 60 per cent of the clearing of tropical moist forests is for agricultural settlement (Myers,1994;Anon.,1991)withloggingandotherreasonslikeroads,urbanizationand Fuelwood accounting for the rest (Anon., 1994b). Tropical forests are one of the last frontiers in the search for subsistence land for the most vulnerable people worldwide (Myers, 1992). Millions of people live on the tropical forest with less than a dollar a day where a third of a billion are estimated to be foreign settlers. However, as the land degrades people are forced to migrate, exploring new forest frontiers increasing deforestation (Wilkie et al., 2000; Amor, 2008; Amor and Pfaff,2008).

One major cause of deforestation is the expansion of agricultural land. This is because agricultural land expansion is generally viewed as the main source of deforestation contributing around 60 per cent of total tropical deforestation. Shifting agriculture also called slash and burn agriculture is the clearing of forested land for raising or growing the crops until the soil is exhausted of nutrients and or the site is overtaken by weeds and then moving on to clear more forest. It is been often reported as the main agent of deforestation.Smallholdingsinagriculturalproductionandthegrowingnumberofsuch producers, notably shifting cultivators were the main cause of deforestation (Anon., 1990b; c; Dick, 1991; Anon., 1992a; b; Barbier et al., 1993; Ascher, 1993; Dove, 1993; 1996;Dauvergne,1994;Porter,1994;Thiele,1994;Anon.,1994c;Angelsen,1995; Ross, 1996).

Mostly all reports indicate shifting agriculture as responsible for about one half of tropical deforestation and some put it up to two-thirds. Shifting agriculture was greatest in Asia (about 30 per cent) but only about 15 per cent over the whole tropical world. It appearsthattheproportionofdirectconversionofforesttoagricultureisincreasingand the proportion of shifting agriculture is decreasing with time (Sumit,2012).

1. Logging and fuelwood

Logging does not necessarily cause deforestation. However, logging can seriously degrade forests (Putz et al., 2001). Logging in Southeast Asia is more intensive andcan be quite destructive. However, logging provides access roads to follow-on settlers and log scales can help finance the cost of clearing remaining trees and preparing land for planting of crops or pasture. Logging thus catalyzes deforestation (Chomitz et al., 2007). Fuelwood gathering is often concentrated in tropical dry forests anddegraded forest areas (Repetto, 1988; 1990; Rowe et al., 1992; Anon., 1994a). Fuelwood is not usually the major cause of deforestation in the humid tropics although it can be in some populated regions whereas in the drier areas of the tropics, fuelwood gathering constitutes a major cause of deforestation and forest degradation. For instance, fuelwood gathering was considered to be the main cause of deforestation and forest degradation in El Salvador (Repetto, 1990).

1. Mining

Mining is very intensive and very destructive (Mather, 1991; Sands, 2005). The area of land involved is quite small and it is not seen as a major cause of primarydeforestation. Mining is a lucrative activity promoting development booms which may attract population growth with consequent deforestation. The deforestation rate due to mining activities in Guyana from 2000 to 2008 increased 2.77 times according to an assessment by the World Wildlife Fund-Guianas (Staff, 2010). Similarly, in the Philippines, mining, along with logging, has been among the forces behind the country’s loss of forest cover: from 17 million hectares in 1934 to just three million in 2003 or an 82 per cent decline (Docena, 2010). Nearly 2,000 hectares of tropical forest in the Municipality of Coahuayana in the State of Michoacán (south-western Mexico) will completely be destroyed by mining iron minerals planned by the Italo-Argentine mining company TERNIUM (Anonymous, 2008). Similarly, Nyamagari hills in Orissa India currently threatened by Vedanta Aluminum Corporation's plan to start bauxite mining will destroy750 hectares of reserved forest (Griffiths and Hirvelä, 2008).

Massive and unchecked mining of coal, iron ore and bauxite in Jharkhand, India has caused large scale deforestation and created a huge water scarcity (Anon., 2011b). In return for US$3.8 billion of investment, the agreements between the State government of Jharkhand, India and mining companies, there will be a massive land acquisition which will deforest no less than 57,000 hectares of forest and displace 9,615 families, many of them located in legally protected Scheduled Areas set aside for indigenous peoples in the State (Mullick and Griffiths. 2007). Moreover, Roads constructed to supporttheminingoperationswillopenuptheareatoshiftingagriculturists,permanent farmers, ranchers, land speculators and infrastructure developers. For instance the core of Brazil’s Amazon development strategy were infra-structure development projects such as roads providing access to frontier regions, mining area and large hydroelectric reservoirs(Mahar,1988;FearnsideandBarbosa,1996;Carvalhoetal.,2002,2004).

1. Effects ofDeforestation

The implications of deforestation are far-reaching as they transcend national boundaries. This underscores the need for a global approach to combating the problem. Some of the effects of deforestation are discussed under subsections 2.7.1 to 2.7.3.

1. Climatechange

It is essential to distinguish between microclimates, regional climate and global climate while assessing the effects of forest on climate (Gupta et al., 2005) especially the effect of tropical deforestation on climate. Deforestation can change the global change of energy not only through the micrometeorological processes but also by increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (Pinker, 1980).

Deforestation affects wind flows, water vapour flows and absorption of solar energy thus clearly influencing local and global climate (Chomitz et al., 2007). Deforestation on lowland plains moves cloud formation and rainfall to higher elevations (Lawton et al., 2001). Deforestation disrupts normal weather patterns creating hotter and drier weather thus increasing drought and desertification, crop failures, melting of the polar ice caps, coastal flooding and displacement of major vegetation regimes (Dregne, 1983).

1. EconomicLosses

The tropical forests destroyed each year amounts to a loss in forest capital valued at US$ 45 billion (Hansen, 1997). By destroying the forests, all potential future revenues and future employment that could be derived from their sustainable management for timber and non-timber products disappear.

1. SocialConsequences

Deforestation, in other words, is an expression of social injustice (Colchester and Lohmann, 1993). The social consequences of deforestation are many, often with devastating long-term impacts. The most immediate social impact of deforestation occurs at the local level with the loss of ecological services provided by the forests. Forests afford humans valuable services such as erosion prevention, flood control, water treatment, fisheries protection and pollination functions that are particularly important to the world’s poorest people who rely on natural resources for their everyday survival. By destroying the forests we risk our own quality of life, gamble with the stability of climate and local weather, threaten the existence of other species and undermine the valuable services provided by biological diversity (Schmink and Wood, 1992).

1. Effects of deforestation on livelihoods in forest fringe communities

Deforestation destroys the forests that buffer the water resources which form essential livelihood assets in forest communities (Agyemang, 1996; Brown, 1999). This exposes the water resources to the elements of the weather, leading to the drying up of vital water bodies. Deforestation also makes forest communities susceptible to erosions and floods.

Another major environmental threat of deforestation to the livelihood of forest fringe communities in Nigeria is soil degradation. That is, deforestation exposes the surface of fertile lands to the harsh conditions of the atmosphere such as the ultra violet radiation of the sun and the blowing away of the top soils by heavy winds, thereby leaving surfaces of lands hard and bereft of plant nutrients. Many forest communities’ farmlands are fragile and can be easily made non-viable by small changes in their ecology (Amisah et al., 2009). It is a known fact that deforestation disrupts normal weather patterns creating hotter and drier weather thus increasing drought and desertification that lead crop failures. Thus, in the long term deforestation could creates adverse ramifications on plant growth that could potentially grind farming livelihoods to a halt in such forest fringe communities.

In addition, forest fringe communities are deprived of forest resources such as wood products, food, medicinal plants through deforestation. Thus, the impacts of deforestation in exacerbating rural poverty are complex and widespread. Not only does forest loss reduce forest communities’ contributions to national economic growth, but more critically, it threatens the livelihoods and traditions of rural and forest dwelling people across the country (Acheampong and Marfo, 2011). With NTFPs reducing alongside the trees that support them, forest communities often have to travel further distances into the forest to access products that sustain their food security and socioeconomic well-being (Bosu et al, 2010).

Across Nigeria, logging operations have also had negative impacts on the collection of NTFPs at the local community level. Forest dwelling or depending communities rarely benefit from timber harvesting as concessions are reserved exclusively for corporate use(despitepervasiveillegaltreecutting),whilesocialresponsibilityagreementsdo not make adequate compensation provisions when forest dwellers’ farming activities are destroyed in the process of timber harvesting (International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), 2005).