MANAGEMENT OF PUBLIC DUMPSITE AND ITS EFFECT ON RESIDENTS

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with review of related literature on solid waste management. The literature is reviewed under concept of solid waste, human perception of solid waste, types and sources of solid waste management practices including waste minimization, resource recovery and disposal techniques.

2.2 CONCEPT OF SOLID WASTE

Attewell (1993:5) defined solid waste as man’s stream or rise in the air. They are the non liquid, non – gaseous residues of our manufacturing, construction, cooking, recreation, agricultural and other activities that are used and then discard materials, included in these category are out dated newspapers, glass, bottles, metal, cans, paper cups, plastic, abandoned automobiles, demolition rubble, mine tailing, dead animals, dewatering sewage sludge and the garbage from kitchen (Mantel 1975:11).

However waste generally refers to any substance which constitutes a scrap material and, or other unisanted sulphur substances arising from the application of any process, and or any substance or article that required to be disposed off as being broken or contaminated but does not include explosive substance within meaning of the Explosive Act 1875.

When something seized to be a useful object it becomes a waste. Waste is therefore a relative term whose meaning depends on what we use and how we use it. Remain food particles from dinner may be cast into garbage or into a garbage container as waste but under another circumstance the bone may be preserved fore soup and presented to an appreciative dog. (Sewell 1988).

Sewell (1988:219) further argued that one may use a piece of paper for not then deposit it into a waste basket as trash but later when lacking a convenient scrap out of the waste basket and use the reserve side thus transforming that paper back into a useful object. It therefore implies that the kind and quantity of solid waste today are largely determined by cultural institution (WHO 1989:1). These solid wastes when not properly managed are of grave consequences to the environment. They pose problems such as:

(i) Public healthy hazards

(ii) Aesthetic degradation

(iii) Occupation of space

(iv) Water and air pollution.

Based on the above problems inherited in solid waste generation and mismanagement, Houghton (1993:1) prescribed four stage decision procedure for effective waste management namely:

(i) Avoid creating waste where possible.

(ii) Recycling unavoidable waste where possible.

(iii) If recycling for materials used is not possible recover energy from them.

(iv) Where the above options have been exhausted utilize the best practicable environmental option to dispose of the waste. WHO (1989:1) maintained that solid waste inadequately collected and disposed causes usual degradation of residual area and block drainage channels. Sewell (1988) agreed that solid waste constitute a visible and durable blight upon our land scrap. Therefore, broken parts of automobile litter streets and fields, trash and garbage spread along high ways, open dumps often located on the high ways and residential areas generate odour and constitute eye – fore to the inhabitant WHO (1987:1) stressed that if garbage litter the street, the opposition group are likely to “use that as a political tool against the opponents.”

In spite of the above, the periphery of our urban centres are bedeviled with environmental degradation and aesthetic deformation are still evident, for instance, mine waste like coal reduce aesthetic beauty of the area (Sewell 1988).

2.3 SOURCES AND TYPES OF SOLID WASTE

From the definition of solid waste. It was observed that solid waste all non-gaseous, liquid residues of our manufacture and other activities (Attwewell 1993:5). It is on this basis that (Sewell 1988:288) classified the basic sources of solid waste as Residential Commercial and municipal, industrial, open area, Treatment Plants and Agricultural. The use and activities of people living in these areas to a large extent affect also the type of waste we can expect to find in each of them, although a particular type of waste could be found in move than one of the sources. For instance we can find food wastes in residential, commercial, municipal and industrial sources of solid waste. The special wastes can also be found in the residential, commercial, municipal and open areas as their sources.

Possession as continuing economic resources, Sewell (1988:220) observed that cans be salvaged and used as containers, while papers can be used, reused and eventually burnt for heat generation. In view of the above (Hardoy 1982:136) emphasized that a greater recognition of the need to develop local solution which match local needs and possibilities should be emphasized because the condition varies so much from city to city in the scale and type of refuse generation as well as local possibilities for recycling.

2.4 WASTE MINIMIZATION AND TREATMENT INCINERATION

For certain types of wastes and for large scale waste disposal, incineration which is the burning of waste in specially constructed chamber, (incineration or combustion chamber)provides one of the simplest and most effective means of disposing of domestic refuse or waste.

Incineration was extensively used in Nigeria during the colonial days for the disposal of domestic wastes. Today the use of incineration is virtually extinct in many parts of Nigeria. Yet incineration is not only simple and efficient, it is capable of adoption for use in variety of situations and size with the possibility of the equipment being made locally to reduce cost. Thus it was the initial high cost of incinerations that discouraged its wide spread application in Nigeria added to the fact that the economics of incineration require large plants that are efficiently operated.

However for incineration plant to be very effective it must be located with great care since its advantages include being extremely, hygienic eliminating many of the problems of tipping such as wind blown refuse strench, rodents flies and other pests. Incineration is the inevitable answer.

2.5 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Authorities involved in solid waste management solid waste management is as old as human congregation in communities (Mantel 1975:71), but the migrant component or our cities and the novelty of the urban culture in many of them have created a state of Omuta (1988:78 – 88) observed that the unprecedented increase in urban population result from the neglect of rural area which created high save of rural urban migration. Such increase, he stressed led to increase in the physical size of the cities and the rate of solid waste generation. In this regard Sada (1988:79), maintain that cities are now regarded as a geographic “no man’s land” where the maintenance of the environment becomes “no man’s business”. In Nigeria, he stressed that two broad systems of solid waste management include public and private responsibility, the former being more conventional. In this case, the solid waste disposal unit is established at the local council level as an operational section of the health Department (Sada 1988:80). In support of the above arrangement Hardoy and Mithin (1992:136) maintained that local based organisations and government are responsible for municipal solid waste management.

In this regard, solid waste management is backed up with laws to ensure its proper execution, since solid waste management is an environmental issue. In Nigeria, Etomi (1990:36) stated that real environmental regulation in Nigeria is the response of National Emergency. That is why the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) Decree of 1988, which Created State and Local Agencies in Nigeria, empowered the agencies to ensure healthy environment through proper solid waste management (FEPA 1988, No 58). To maximize public involvement in solid waste management, Sada (1988:84) maintain that community leaders must be fully integrated into the solid waste management policy – making process, stressing that traditional rulers should liaise with the grassroots – primary generator of solid wastes and urban authorities.

However, instability in government adversely affect the management processes of solid wastes. This is true because, the frequent change in the institutional framework, by the government in power, for solid waste management or the chief executive denies the waste management organisation the benefit of accumulated experience that is very essential in the operation of such institutions. In the same vein, Okpala (1986:68) emphasized that such instabilities contribute substantially to the containing ineffectiveness of solid waste management. He, however, suggested that waste management should be solely, responsibility local government authority in order to give the local government greater autonomy; a single purpose waste management agency for each urban centre to handle all refuse collection and disposal within its area of jurisdiction be created, private contractors with the responsibility of collecting refuse from residence of generators be established. The last option is very important because in many developed countries waste management has from government responsibility to private individuals and companies. This saves the government local or state from huge expenses that could have been involved in this venture.

2.6 RESOURCE RECOVERY

Resource recovery according to Sewell (1988:243) is the retrieval of material from waste stream for some economically useful function. He stressed that the term can refer to the complicated sorting of papers, cans, bottles and other materials from domestic wastes, and subsequent processing unit – steel furnace – Hester and Harrison (1994:2) David 1981:17) remarked that recovery could be for an equivalent use such as the reprocessing of newsprint (paper recycling), or for a degraded use such as t he recovery of heat or compost from domestic waste.

A brief survey of materials which are collected from municipal pack truck …. Refuse depot vary in size, shape and physical characteristics and such heterogeneous material pose considerable difficulties in processing for resource recovery operation (Pavoni 1975:205). He stressed that heterogeneous nature of municipal solid waste materials render some portion that could be retrieved useless since salvaging such waste materials require extract expenditure of money, power and labour in subsequent sorting and separation operation if urban managers are to be able to cope with increased waste now and in the future.

Howbeit, incineration should be located in an industrial district and as close as possible to the centre of population to be served so that collection cost may be reduced to minimum. Also efficient, highly trained and dedicated personnel are necessary to maximize it use. Again, incineration is made3 up of two main methods open andcontrolled incineration. As a principal for the construction of incineration. As a principal for the construction of incinerator Berry and Horton (1974) suggested free supply of air, provision fro conservation of heat and provision for effective stocking as necessity for better burning.

It should be such that would burn the daily generated wastes without undue delay. The temperature should be high enough to burn all the combustible starting with the drier portion of the solid wastes.

COMPOSTING

As it is common with all forms of waste disposal, it is one of the good ways by which refuse or waste is converted into humus, organic product that is used as an agricultural fertilizer to improve and sustain good and health growth of agricultural crops as a waste disposal attempt composting reduces the bulk of refuse to about 40 – 60%. Although in Nigeria any composting that occurs is accidental rather then a conscious effort to utilize the material for agriculture, it has very attractive advantages which include:

(a) It kills diseases because of heat

(b) It is most suitable for organic refuse

(c) It is more naturally assimilated by land

(d) It does not produce air or water pollution.

2.7 DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES

According to Berry and Horton, (1974), in recent years the character refuse has changed because f the new techniques in food packing in home heating and in disposal itself. Notably the advent of the household garbage grinder. The significant effect of these new techniques has been to change the composition of refuse, reducing the proportion of wet garbage and ash and increasing the relative amount of paper for this report six methods that could be used to dispose refuse would be reviewed.

a) Swine feeding of the garbage portion.

b) Open dumping (which accounted for 77 percent of all collected solid waste).

c) Sanitary land fill.

d) Incineration (Accounts for 10% of domestic solid waste).

e) Compositing.

The feeding of garbage to swine was at one time a very profitable method of refuse disposal in the united state but not until the outbreaks of vascular exanthema among farm animals that resulted to a substantial economic losses Berry and Horton (1974). There are generally tow types of swine feeding operation: large and small scavengers. (The major obstacles is cooking the refuse and separating the garbage from the inedible materials.

According to chanleth (1979:192) from history people have continually struggled to manage their natural environments in order to improve their health and well-being. This method is the simplest method of disposal although it is also the least satisfactory usually open dump is an area where refuse is disposed and allowed to remain exposed tot he atmosphere. The danger of this method is that the dumps form a breeding ground formosquitoes, rats and encourage the epizortics of fungal and bacterial diseases. Also the outbreak of fire at some dumps created an air pollution problem. Added to this some dumps become swampy and water filled where this occurs the probability of ground water – contamination is high. Communicatively both burning refuse and stagnant water causes serious odour and health problems. In every way, the open is both undesirable and an unnecessary hazard to public health. In deed the open dump is a relic of a paste era and cannot be considered unacceptable method of refuse disposal.

SANITARY LANDFILL

A substantial retirement of open dump method. It has the advantage over the open dump method in that:

a) It does not create a nuisance.

b) It does not produce odour.

c) It does not produce air or water pollution.

Infact, an efficient sanitary land fill operation will inhibit flies, mosquitoes and rats will seal in odours; prevent water in – filtration and will minimize blowing and scattering. Infact, scholars of urban planning see this method of refuse disposal as a method whereby a community disposal problem may be solved in an economic manner and also provide opportunities to create improved sites and to shape the landscape.

In practice a sanitarylandfill operation may involve the preparation of site by digging trenches or cutting into slope with earth moving machinery. The refuse is dumped into the cavities and is covered with a layer of earth taken from either the trench or the slope. Trees can be planted on it.

2.9 HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SOLID WASTE

Assessing the impacts of municipal solid waste management involves consideration of a large number or components. Health impacts include exposure to toxic chemical through air, water and soil media; exposure to infection and biological contaminants; stress related to odor, noise, vermin and visual amenity; risk of fires explosions and subsidence among others (Dolk 2002). Environmental impacts cam be clustered into: global warning, photochemicaloxidation creation, abiotic resource-depletion, acidification, eutrophication, and ecotoxicity ofm water (Seo, 2004).

Landfills are associated with a plethora of health and social effects such as odor nuisance; ozone formation (from reaction of NOx and non-methane organic compounds with sunlight) that causes pulmonary central nervous system damage; fire and explosion-hazards from build-up of methane; and increase in the number of vermin (bird, rodents and insects) which act as disease vectors; and ground and air pollution from leachate and landfill gases

(Daskalopoutos, 1998). Water contamination by leachate transmits bacteria and diseases. Leachate from landfills can enter ground water system, leading to increase in nutrient levels that cause eutrophication (El-fadel, 1997). Bioaccumulation of toxins and heavy-metals can also occur.

Incineration impacts society by production of odor and in the unsightliness of the facility (Garrod and Willis 1998). There is also the potential for surface water pollution from waste water (used for quenching hot ashes before transport) (EPA 1995). The most important health and environmental impact is from air emissions, which include particulate CO, Cox, acid gases (Chlorides and sulfides), volatile organics and mercury. These compounds contribute to bioaccumulation of toxics and acid rain (Daskalopouls, 1998, EPA, 1995). Inhalation of particulate matter poses a health danger, as its destroys lung tissues (Neal and Schubel, 1987).

Health and social impacts of composting/Anaerobic Digestion include noise, odor, and unsightliness (Garrod and Willis, 1998). Many of the micro-organisms found in compost are known respiratory sensitizers that can cause a range of respiratory symptoms including allergic rhinitis, asthma, and chronic bronchitic (Swan, 2002). Both composting and anaerobic digestion produce biogases, through less than landfills, composting is aerobic and produces primarily carbon dioxide while anaerobic digestion produces methane. Both gases contribute to global warming.

Recycling also pose health and environmental risks. Sorting facilities contain high concentration of dust bio-aerosols and metals. Workers commonly experience itching eyes, sore throats and respiratory diseases (Gladding 2002). Environmental speaking, recycling uses a large amount of energy resources. Health and social side effects are equally as important as environmental impacts when considering MSW management. For people in developing countries, bodily well-being is a far more pressing concern than the fact that opens burning of garbage contributes to acid rain or global warming. Outrage over health issues of poor waste management could therefore be a motivating factor towards more sustainable environmental practices. Other negative environmental effects of indiscriminate dumping of refuses, is in the area of social economic aspect of a nation as it affects its tourism potential and its aesthetic standard.

2.10 STRATEGIES FOR EDUCATING AND RAISING AWARENESS ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

In order to control the manner in which solid wastes are handled by individuals and authorities concerned with solid waste management, there is the need to educate the citizens and raise awareness on the negative impacts of improper management of solid wastes. This is supported by Ribble Valley Borough Council (2009) which asserts that adopting a waste awareness and education strategy would clearly indicate commitment to raising public awareness on waste. It also considered that such a strategy would provide an ideal educational framework that will lead to consistency of information and identify more practical activities that can be undertaken by individuals and authorities concerned with wastes management. The strategies are discussed below:

i. Infusion of solid wastes management themes into academic curricula

The infusion of Solid wastes management themes for environmental sustainability into the academic curricula at all levels of education will contribute immensely to the citizen‟s perception and attitudinal change towards waste management. Waste management themes can be infused into traditional subjects like science, social studies, Geography and English. Adekunle et al, (2012) noted that if citizens are mobilized at a tender age, by infusing solid waste management themes into their curricular, safe waste disposal of materials will become a natural habit as their hearts and minds will be captured early in life. This will promote a sense of responsibility and best practices of managing wastes.

ii. Establishment of environmental clubs and programmes

Establishment of environmental clubs and programmes on solid waste management in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions will equally enhance proper management of wastes. Through this medium, knowledge and understanding of solid waste management will be developed, positive attitudes, values, care and concern for the environment will be attained. In the same vain, appropriate skills and competences needed for segregation, reduction, reuse, composting and recycling will be inculcated in the citizens that will enhance active participation of people in solid wastes management (Festus and Ogoegbunam, 2012). ii.Informal and non- formal education strategy

Individuals in the society that cannot be reached in the formal school system can be educated informally and non-formally. This could be achieved through the print and audio visual media and the internet. Educating the people through these media will enhance better practices of solid wastes segregation, reduction, composting and recycling of solid wastes (Festus and Ogoegbunam, 2012).

iii. Public awareness on solid waste management

The creation of awareness on the negative impact of improper management of solid wastes is of great importance in motivating individuals to participate in waste management. In order to increase household participation in recycling, Omran et al (2007) state that the message of recycling as an appropriate waste management technique needs to be adequately communicated to the public. This will enable residents to change their habits, behaviour and traditions towards recycling for the better. The message can be created through various strategies. This could be carried out through advertisements in the newspapers, television, radio, billboards and the use of leaflet. Enlightenment campaigns, clean up campaigns are other avenues of creating awareness on waste management. Abdelsner et al (2006) in Omran, et al (2007) observe that the integrated use of all media can increase public participation in recycling of solid wastes. The organization of workshops, seminars on environmental issues and solid waste management in particular can equally be employed.

iv. Use of environmental educational materials

End-user Environmental Adult Educational materials like posters, fliers located at strategic locations in various parts will constantly keep the citizens informed about appropriate attitude and proper methods of handling the wastes they generate daily.

End-user environmental adult education materials as noted by Mbalisi (2009:17) are

“materials which the target audience require no further interpretation to understand and assimilate the information”.

The use of local languages in the dissemination of information on how to manage wastes properly is paramount in the sustainable solid waste management so as to reach out to the citizens that do not understand English language. These materials therefore can be prepared in different languages so as to enable the target audience comprehend the messages they convey. The activity based

environmental education materials like curriculum guides, reference materials and policy documents can also be utilized. Mbalisi (2009) also noted that activity based materials are those environmental adult education materials which require further interpretation before the target audience could understand and assimilate the information they contain. These materials can be used in schools, workshops, seminars, presentations and group discussions(Festus and Ogoegbunam, 2012).

2.11 SUSTAINABLE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Over the years, the problem associated with solid waste management is more acute in developing countries of the world than the developed world (Zerborck, 2003). Many Developing Countries are still struggling with solid waste collection and management (Wilson, 2007), and Nigeria is no exception. Solid Waste is waste generated and discarded as useless or unwanted from activities in homes, institutions, public and commercial places, and industries, though it is also a resource for reuse, recycle, and recovery (Tchobanoglous et al.,

1993). According to Mary and Barbara, (2005) waste management is the collection, transportation, processing, treatment, recycling or disposal of waste materials to reduce their adverse effect on humans‟ health or amenities.

A sustainable solid waste management system encompasses a system that is environmentally, financially, and socially appropriate and acceptable, and meets the criteria of sustain-able development, development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987) Environmental sustainability requires that solid waste collection and disposal which imposes great burden on the environment and resources, be transformed into a closed-cycle system (closing the loop) restoring various natural cycles, thus preventing the loss of raw materials, energy, and nutrients.(Schmidt, 2011).

2.12 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE WASTE GENERATION

A good study of household solid waste requires the assessment of the factors that influence the generation and disposal of wastes for a proper and sustainable management of urban household wastes. According to Hardoy, Mitlin and Satherthwaite, (2001), cities are regarded as the most efficient agents of production with increase in population. This population increase compounds the problems of solid waste management. Urban land use over the years have become complex as the city grows in population and physical size and so does the solid waste generation increase in volume an varieties. Urban land uses vary from residential, commercial, industrial, institutional; and others, with each category generating its own peculiar type of solid waste. However, residential land use constitutes the single most important generator of solid waste in Nigeria urban areas (Adegoke, 1990; Ogwuche 2011).

Because of the complexity of the household wastes, the socio-economic structure of the urban population becomes a major determinant of the spatial structure of solid waste problems in our cities. Uwadeigwu (2003) in a study noted that the quantity of municipal solid waste produced depends upon the living standard of the residents, urbanization and industrialization.

Okoye (2004), identified household size, income level, level of technological advancement and socio-economic status as factors that affect the quantity of solid waste generation, but however, noted that a single factor may not on its own constitutes a difference in the quantity of waste generated by a household. Also Afon and Okewole (2007), in a study of waste generation in Oyo State, Nigeria discovered that as education, income and social status increase, per capital waste generation declines. This according to him is partly influenced by the differences unemployment/livelihood pattern in the area.

2.11 Empirical Review

Nigerian cities generate solid waste at an alarming rate such that in most cases, the volume of waste generated is often more than what the city system could absorb or handle. The characteristics of their problems range from inadequate housing, lack of potable water leading to un- sanitary neighborhoods. Several studies have taken different lash at issues that concerns waste at large.

Efe, (2010) examined the problem of waste disposal and management in Ughelli. A field survey was undertaken to determine the types, volume, effects and methods of managing solid waste in the Ughelli. The volume of waste was measured at dumpsites in the four existing quarters and from household bins. Appropriate waste characterization methods were employed in classifying the waste into various components on weekly basis. Eighty and twenty questionnaires were administered to households‟ heads and industries respectively and summarized with descriptive statistics. The results revealed an increase in the volume of solid waste generated over the years with 15,540 Kg mean annual volume of solid waste generated in Ughelli at dumpsites, and 1104.7 Kg mean volume of solid waste generated per households that never arrives at dumpsites.

The composition of solid waste generated and disposed in Ughelli were

predominantly food items, bottles/cans and plastics, paper/carton and nylon of sachet water, which were mostly found in market places. The most widely adopted method of waste disposal is open dumping, land filling, dig and bury. It is therefore recommended that government should adopt an appropriate waste collection and disposal agency and also more government approved dumpsites should be established in the area.

Agwu (2012) examined the relationship between individual background (sex, age and social class) and the level of awareness, knowledge and practices of solid waste management in Port-Harcourt city residents. The research was based on Ajzen (1991) theory of planned behaviour which states that attitude towards behaviour, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control, has influence in predicting the behavioural intention and actual behaviour of individuals when participatory decisions are voluntary and under an individual control.

The research assumes that some demographic information (sex, age and social class) of Port-Harcourt city residents influences their attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control thus determining the behavioural intention/actual behaviour i.e. level of awareness, knowledge and practices of solid waste management. 800 Port-Harcourt city residents were randomly surveyed from the two local government areas of the city (PortHarcourt city and Obio/Akpor LGAs) using structured questionnaire. Data collected were subjected to percentage, mean, standard deviation, t-test and chi-square statistical analyses.

Findings revealed that Port-Harcourt city residents from the sampled zones are aware of solid waste management problems in their environment but possessed poor waste management practices. The study showed that the propensity for solid waste management practices differed by background (sex, social class and age) of residents. Significant relationships were observed between respondents‟ sex, age and social class and their level of awareness, knowledge and practices of solid waste management. This research therefore recommends among others: sensitization of Port-Harcourt city residents on the dangers of poor solid waste management, provision of near-by solid waste collection points, enactment of waste management laws with stiffer penalties on offenders, establishment of solid waste recycling plants, effective monitoring of waste contractors, provision of more waste evacuation equipment, provision of more solid waste dump sites and effective monitoring of monthly clean-up activities.