CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Africa is the world’s second largest and second most populous continent. With about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of earth’s total surface area and 20.4% of its total land area. With 1.1 billion people as of 2013, it counts for about 15% of the world’s human population.
The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the North, by the Suez Canal Sea and the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula to the North-East, the Indian Ocean to the South-East, and the Atlantic Ocean to the West. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos. It contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states (countries), nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition.
The history of Africa as a continent is replete with conflict (Alabi, 2006). One may even assert that the major current that runs through Africa: from North to South, East to West and Central is conflict and wars. Since 1960’s, series of civil wars had taken place in Africa as the continent of Africa has been highly susceptible to intra and inter-state wars and conflicts (Aremu,2010).
Conflict has been defined variously by scholars. According to (Aremu, 2010) to (Holsti, 1983) conflict is a particular relationship between states or rival factions within a state which implies subjective hostilities or tension manifested in subjective economic or military hostilities. (Coser, 1998) on his part views conflict as a struggle over values and claims to scare status, power and resources in which the aims of the conflicting parties are to injure or eliminate their rivals. Conflicts could, however, be violent or uncontrollable, dominant or recessive, resolvable or insolvable. This presupposes that violence is not an inherent aspect of conflict but rather a potential form that conflict may take (Omotosho, 2004).
Conflicts have noticeable become part and parcel of life as far as human existence is concerned Africa is not an exception from this experience, which manifests itself in the form of ideological bloody wars, civil wars, and tribal wars. For this reason conflict is generally defined as an interaction between independent people who perceive incompatible goals and who expect interference from the other party if they attempt to achieve their goal (Matthew, 2010).
African conflict situation which were noticeable as far back as 1980’s and 90’s was characterized with a lot of untold hardships and loss of lives or properties. Hawkins (2008) stressed that conflict in Africa since the end of the hostility has claimed over 9 million deaths in Africa. He adds that, conflict have dominated the agendas of actors in a position to respond (i.e. policy makers, the media, the public and academic) and are often relatively small in scale compared to many of those that have consistently failed to attract attention.
Conflict is a triangle with structure, attitude, and behavior as its vertices. The “structure” is the conflict situation, the parties, and the conflict of interest among them. Conflicts arise where the parties come to have incompatible interests, values or goals.
An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common language, ancestral, social, cultural, or national experiences. Unlike other social groups (wealth, age, hobbies), ethnicity is often an inherited status based on the society in which a person lives. In some cases, it can be adopted if a person moves into another society. Membership of an ethnic group tends to be defined by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry, origin myth, history, homeland, language, or dialect, symbolic systems such as religion, mythology and ritual, cuisine, dressing style, art, and physical appearance. It is based on the notion that just because of a person’s membership of a particular tribe; he or she has all the behavioral traits believed to be associated with that tribe. These characteristics, however, are often inaccurate since they are not based on any objective criteria. Ethnocentrism is a condition under which a particular tribe sees itself as the center of the universe, that is, the central pivot or kingpin around which everything turns. People who are ethnocentric look down on other ethnic groups as subservient or less important and this could hinder national unity thus, impede national growth and development.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
A major cause of African conflict has been ethnicity, and it has continued to be so. The creation of new nation-states at the time of independence was accomplished under urgent calls for nation-building by the new African leaders who were well aware of the difficulty in transcending African ethnic groups and regional loyalties. The European concept of a nation was exported to Africa. Stephen McCarthy’s definition of a nation as ‘a complex web of common cultural, social and economic interests among people, leading to a sense that share in common is greater than their regional, tribal or other differences’ simply reflects features which many African states did not have.
This study seeks to identify and analyze the complex nature, causes and effect of ethnic conflicts in Africa.
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The aim of this study is to explore the effects of ethnic conflict on the peace, stability, as well as the socioeconomic lives of people, communities and Africa as a whole.
The specific objectives are as follows:
1. To examine the impact of conflict in Africa
2. To explore the underlying factors responsible for the ethnic conflicts in Africa
3. To explore the effects of ethnic conflicts in Africa
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Following the above background of study, objectives and its aim, the following questions will be investigated:
What factors trigger the conflict in Africa?
Is the effect of the ethnic conflict in Africa positive or negative?
How do ethnic conflicts threaten Africa’s international stability?
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The study provides additional framework in the explanation of issues surrounding conflict situations in Africa generally and serves as a policy guide to public office holders and decision makers in International Relations. The study will invariably be of great benefit to the general public in conflict management efforts.
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study provides insight into the effect of ethnic conflict in Africa but the area covered is limited to only Ghana and Congo.
The study seeks to find out some of the major factors that stimulate ethnic conflict. It seeks to understand the factors that have impeded the successful ethic conflict resolution as well as identifying possible solution to them.
1.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
In the course of this research several factors posed a limitation to its success. Finance is one of the major factors that played a devastating role in preventing the researcher (me) to use certain approaches and methods in the course of the study. Also, the researcher had a time problem because the available time was shared between academic work, domestic responsibilities etc. it was not easy to attain a perfect balance among these activities as such very little time was available for the conduct of this study.
Academic pressure and availability of material were among the limitations encountered by the researcher due to the combination of both classroom lectures and assignment hence the bulk of materials used were limited to the ones available.
1.8 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
• Conflict
Conflict refers to some form of friction, disagreement, or discord arising within a group when the beliefs or action of one or more members of the group are either resisted by or unacceptable to one or more members of another group. Conflict can arise between members of two or more groups, and involve violence, interpersonal discord, and psychological tension, known as inter-group conflict.
• Ethnicity
Ethnicity is a concept referring to a shared culture and way of life. This can be reflected in language, religion, material culture such as clothing and food, and cultural products such and music and art.
Joane Nagel proposed next definition ethnicity is a specific negotiated status, determined by interplay between external ascription and individual self-identification
• Ethnic group
Ethnic group is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common language, ancestral, social, cultural, or national experiences.
Barth defines the ethnic group as a social organization with specific psychological boundaries, which is created as a result of the interaction of specific historical, economic and political circumstances.
• Ethnic conflict
An ethnic conflict is a conflict between two or more contending ethnic groups.
TABLE OF CONTENT
PAGE
TITLE PAGE
CERTIFICATION i
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
ABSTRACT iv
RESUME v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi - vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the Study 1 - 3
1.2 Statement of the Problem 4
1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study 5
1.4 Research Questions 5
1.5 Significance of the Study 5
1.6 Scope of the Study 5
1.7 Limitations of the Study 6
1.8 Definition of Key Terms 6 - 7
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1 African Conflicts and Violence 8
2.2 Sources of Ethnic Conflict in Africa 8 - 9
2.3 Causes of Conflict in Africa 9 - 11
2.4 Conflicts and Types 11 - 12
2.5 Ethnicity and Its Role in West African Conflicts 13 -14
2.6 Related Empirical Studies 14 - 23
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 24
3.1 Research Methodology 24 - 26
3.2 Location and Population of the Study 26
3.3 Data Collection Methods and Instruments 26 - 27
3.4 Validity and Reliability of Instrument 27
3.5 Constraints in the Field 28
CHAPTER FOUR: ASSESSMENT AND EFFECTS OF ETHNIC CONFLICTS IN GHANA AND CONGO 29
4.1 Ghana Ethnic Conflict and Its Effects 29
4.1.1 The Nkonya-Alavanyo Conflict 29 - 34
4.2 Congo Conflict Effects on Lives of Its Citizens 34 - 36
4.3 Rwanda Ethnic Conflict and its Effects 36 – 47
4.4 Resolution Procedures to the Conflict 47 - 50
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATION 51
5.1 Summary 51
5.2 Recommendation 56
Bibliography 61