The Role Of Motivation In The Acquisition Of Phonetic Sounds
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THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION IN THE ACQUISITION OF PHONETIC SOUNDS

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Although many people believe that successful language learners have special cognitive abilities, research in second language acquisition actually tells a different story. A number of studies by R. C. Gardner and his colleagues, as well as by researchers in many parts of the world, have found that motivation is a consistently strong predictor of successful language learning. [See Masgoret and Gardner (2003) and Gardner, Tremblay, and Masgoret (1997) for reviews and analysis of this literature.]

It certainly makes sense that motivation would be associated with second language achievement since language learning requires a long-term time commitment, and motivated individuals would be more likely to devote the time required to language learning. It is also true that having a specific goal in language learning helps students focus their efforts and maintain their motivation.

Motivation and studying in a second language Motivation “energizes” human behavior and “gives it direction” (Dornyei, 1998, p. 117) and is a significant dimension in language learning (Gardner, 1985; Gardner et al. 2004; Lightbown & Spada, 1993). A large spectrum of theories covers the many variables that affect student motivation in the second language (L2) classroom. These are reviewed and drawn upon in examining the views on foreign/ second language learning of learners and the teachers who participated in this study. Research on L2 motivation (until the early 1990s) was inspired by Gardner (1983; 1985), Clement (1980) and their colleagues. L2 motivation was then seen as influenced by learners’ attitudes towards social perceptions of the L2 and its speakers, their interethnic contact and the resulting degree of linguistic self-confidence (Dornyei, 2001a). For example, Gardner (1985, p.6) reports that students’ attitudes towards a specific language group are bound to influence how successful they will be in incorporating aspects of that language. This is especially true considering that learning a foreign language is different from learning other subjects as language is viewed as part of one’s identity. Williams (1994) argues that learning a foreign language involves far more than simply learning skills or a system of rules, or a grammar. According to him, it involves an alteration in self-image, the adoption of new social and cultural behaviors and ways of being and, therefore, has a significant impact on the social nature of the learner. In addition, research in L2 motivation by Dornyei (1990, 1994, 1997, 1998, 2001a, b) and Williams (1994) revealed a need for a more pragmatic education centered approach, examining classroom reality and identifying and analyzing classroom specific motives. For example, an empirical survey of motivational strategies in language classrooms in Hungary (Dornyei & Csizer, 1998) resulted in ten commandments for motivating language learners (p. 215): teachers should set a personal behavior example, make sure that the class atmosphere is relaxed and pleasant, present tasks properly to the learners, have good teacher-student relationships, work on increasing learners’ self confidence, ensure that language classes are interesting to the students, promote as much as possible learners’ autonomy, personalize the learning process, increase learners’ goals, and make sure that learners are familiar with the target language culture. The study was replicated on Taiwanese students (Cheng & Dornyei, 2007), but the results differed due to the different background, tradition, identity and culture of the participants. Cortazzi and Jin (1999) also found that culture and identity are two essential variables in motivating L2 learners. Other researchers also argued that L2 involves the development of an L2 identity and incorporating elements from the L2 culture and contains environmental factors, cognitive factors, featured personality, and social dimensions (Dornyei, 1998). Simard and Wong (2004) support this development of second language awareness as it not only improves second language learning, but it also promotes greater cross cultural understanding among the second language learners. Taking this identity theory further and not excluding previous motivation theories, Dornyei (2010b) has recently described this new approach in second language learning as the ‘L2 motivational self esteem’ which links the learning of the foreign language to one’s personal ‘core’ or identity. This has implications for learning a foreign language in that the learner develops ‘self maturity’ and thus ‘self motivation’ in acquiring the target language.

2.2 Classroom reality and motivation

The following are some issues related to motivation in the classroom in the context of the present study. 2.2.1 Clarity of purpose and motivation Burden (2004) found that students need to realize that the purpose of using the target language is not for studying purposes only but also for effective communication. Moreover, Dorneyi (1990), Ghaith (2003) and Oxford (1996) found that when learners see practical purposes in learning the language, they are motivated even if the language is not significant in the learner's community.

2.2.2 Content, teaching methods and motivation

Motivation is a major concern in improving reading and consequently fostering literacy (Anderson, Hiebert, Scott &Wilkinson, 1985), but one should follow up on motivation strategies to check whether they help improve students’ achievement in the learned language (Dorneyi, 2001a). Using reading texts that students can understand is another motivating factor. Stott (2004) conducted a study on twenty Japanese students taking English classes at a Japanese university to examine whether reading a selection from Japanese literature translated into English would result in better recall and comprehension of the text. Findings indicate that some but not all familiar topics and texts enhance motivation and that teachers should expose students to reading texts from other cultures as well. Teachers should evaluate suitability of the reading materials to their learners in both cases. 2.2.3 Positive learning experiences and motivation

Research has shown that one's positive experiences and achievement in the foreign language impacts one's confidence in using it. Clement’s (1980) model focused on the influence of the social context on one’s motivation in second language learning. He found that positive language learning experiences increase learners’ self confidence in using the second language and further motivation to learn it. This even applies to contexts that do not provide direct interaction with native speaker communities. Gardner et al. (2004) agree that language learning in the classroom and in language clubs and activities help increase ‘knowledge, fluency and familiarity …with the language’ (p. 3) and shape attitudes to language learning and future use. Dornyei (1994) argues that language learners are motivated differently according to their achievement and self-confidence, and that the learning situation provides motives through the language classroom, i.e. course, teacher and group aspects (Clement, Dornyei, & Noels, 1994; Csizer & Dornyei, 2005a, b).

2.2.4 Attitude, anxiety and motivation

Learner’s attitude to the learned language impacts the learner outside the classroom (Schumann, 1978; Dornyei & Skehan, 2003; Csizer & Dornyei, 2005a, 2005b). A favorable attitude would motivate learners to reach their learning goals as found by Burden (2004) who studied attitude change of Japanese university students in an English conversation class. Gardner et al. (2004) also argue that affective factors influence language acquisition and achievement. They studied the effects of language instruction on “language attitudes, motivation, and anxiety that take place over the academic year” (p. 7) and used the Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) to measure variables which are important in the socio-educational model such as motivation intensity, desire to learn French, attitudes to learning French and to French Canadians, and interest in foreign languages. They also evaluated the French teacher and the course, the anxiety in the French class and in using French, and whether learning French is instrumental to the participants. Findings show that students’ attitudes are influenced by the teacher and the classroom environment; experiences in different classes varied and had different effects on students’ interest in foreign languages. The researchers suggest that educators should introduce specific teacher strategies that would increase student motivation and reduce language anxiety.

2.2.5 Interactive communicative methods and motivation

Another significant dimension to language learning is providing learners with opportunities to interact freely and learn from each others' mistakes (Lightbown & Spada, 1993, Davis, 2003; Ghaith, 2003). A study of Chinese university student opinions of their English language courses and how they perceive their language improvement (Yang & Lau, 2003) showed complaints about the redundancy though at times they did not mind the repetition. Many argued that some of the skills may be taught on the job in a two week period rather than a whole semester. Findings also suggest that students prefer more communicative approaches in teaching and learning English. Interactive teaching methods for teaching English as a foreign language to university students improves comprehension and communicative competence as found by Morell (2004) who compares conventional non-interactive methods with minimal student interventions with interactive classes that use entertainment, students’ oral presentation and student interventions. Findings indicate that in interactive classes, teachers are aware of their students’ needs to understand and improve their communicative competence and of the importance of student involvement. In non-interactive classes, teachers felt pressured by time and course syllabus and commented that more time and preparation would be needed if they are to convert to interactive teaching methods. Interactive classes are also favored by students’ language learning strategies in four colleges of business, basic education, technological and health sciences in Kuwait (El-Dib, 2004). Data were analyzed by the Strategy Inventory of Language Learning (SILL) and findings indicate that students prefer the active naturalistic use of the language, i.e. language as the main communicative means by students from different nationalities. 2.2.6 Impact of teaching strategies on motivation Instruction strategies can also enhance students’ engagement or involvement in the learning process. Cooperative group learning (Ghaith, 2003) and the use of technology (Al-Jarf, 2004; Ramachaudran, 2004) shift the focus from teacher controlled classrooms to student centered ones. Udvari-Solner (1996) argues for teaching strategies that extend further than delivering instruction to include content that is relevant to the student’s lives; Udvari-Solner, Villa, and Thousand (2005) stipulate corrective feedback as part of teaching strategies and designing a teaching-learning process that can promote meaningful participation for all students within the classroom.

2.2.7 Acknowledging learning styles and motivation

In deciding on content that addresses the interests and needs of diverse students, Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Gardner, 1983) may be considered to understand and identify strengths in all students. Students’ previous learning and knowledge should also be considered as course content is selected. In cases where all students learn the same content, instructors can require different modes of responding to the content such as a variety of oral and written activities. Thus, students may select from several options such as written reports, debates, power point presentations, graphic presentation of comparisons and contrasts, and persuasive and personal position essays. Dornyei and Skehan (2003) similarly point out the importance of individual differences in second language learning. Fortini and Fizpatrick (2000) suggest re-designing the curriculum to cater for students’ differences and help them make sense of what they encounter in their courses which would maximize learning. This may be achieved by adopting a universal design thus creating and designing products and environments for particular purposes. Rose and Meyer (2002) add that in education, a universal design for learning aims at providing students with multiple ways of representation and facilitating engagement and expression. This improves students’ access to curriculum content, process, and product, i.e., what instructors want students to learn and how they learn and demonstrate what they have learned. It follows that students are provided with a variety of materials, of means to engage them in learning and expressing what they have learned (Tomlinson, 1995a, 1995b). 2.2.8 Impact of writing instruction and feedback

Another problematic practice is the focus on teaching writing in the language class. Harklau (2002) argues that it is not sufficient for second language learners to ‘learn how to write’ in the target language but in fact learn the second language through writing. According to her, there should be more emphasis on speaking in the second language rather than on writing. Lavelle and Zuercher (2001) examined university writing approaches and students’ views on writing and their experiences as writers. The findings highlight the importance of facilitating writing for university students by including comprehensive tasks, emphasizing revision and meaning, scaffolding learners, modeling, and teaching writing across the curriculum. McCune (2004) conducted a longitudinal study of first year university students in a Scottish university. She used interviews to examine students’ essay writing, how they conceive the process, and whether they benefit from their teachers’ feedback. McCune (2004) found that students had difficulty in understanding and following their teachers’ feedback and guidance because of their own conceptions of essay writing and handouts, and so their writing was not well developed. The literature also shows that students face difficulties in changing to more sophisticated essay writing as expected by their teachers (Campbell, Smith, & Brooker, 1998; Norton, 1990; Prosser & Webb, 1994).

Interviewed students did not understand the nature of essay writing, so they could not benefit from their teacher’s advice and handouts. This led to a negative attitude to essay writing. The study shows the importance of the learning context and of providing help for students other than handouts and feedback such as self and peer assessment to help students understand what teachers require of them (Mowl & Pain, 1995; Oldfield & McAlpine, 1995). McCune (2004) also suggests individualized help because students’ intellectual development is varied and requires “tailored support” and dialogue between teacher and student (p. 279). This helps reduce the effect of negative self-assessment. The idea that learners' first language interferes with learning a new language was studied by Lightbown and Spada (1993) among others. However, Khuwaileh and Al- Shoumali (2000) examined whether the academic English and Arabic writing ability of L1 Arabic learners at university is the same in their mother tongue and the foreign language. The findings show that there is no correlation between students' writing in the first and foreign language and that the majority of the learners had more serious language mistakes in Arabic than in English.

2.2.9 Using technology and motivation

Using technology and activities in teaching language can enhance learning. Al-Jarf (2004) studied the influence of using technology in teaching and learning writing skills for EFL college students in King Saud University, Saudi Arabia. The two groups engaged in the study were exposed to the same traditional class writing instruction based on the textbook. However, students of the experimental group were encouraged to use the Internet and computers to check and improve their class essays at home. Both groups were post-tested. Findings revealed that the experimental group made higher gains in writing achievement, improved in motivation, sense of achievement and self-esteem. Technology had a positive effect on their attitude towards the writing process and made writing an enjoyable task. It encouraged more writing and exchange of ideas outside the classroom. Ramachaudran (2004) adds that using new forms of technologies in the language class will certainly encourage and motivate learners to use the target language.

Similarly, Kim (2003) found a positive influence of email talk on English speaking skills of elementary and middle school students. The learners’ interaction in the English language improved their language proficiency. They were interacting with other learners, teachers and online learning content. Students became more expressive in the computer-based communications than in their classroom environments and demonstrated more active participation. The middle school students improved in vocabulary use and pronunciation on their voice mail messages but not on grammar use. Kim (2003) concludes that email can be a tool for improving written language skills and oral language proficiency. 2.2.10 Impact of reward on motivation

In some schools, language teachers use rewards to enhance motivation in language learning as suggested by Schunk (1983). Meyer (1995) argues that motivating students to become active readers requires a national program that rewards reading. Johnson (1995) refers to such programs as “Earning by Learning” (EBL). The program aims to motivate academically low achieving students to read by rewarding them with cash and adult attention. Although educators favor intrinsic motivation, Oldfather (1995) argues for using extrinsic rewards to motivate those who are academically frustrated. Terrel and Rundulic (1996) also argue that rewarding students for completing a task improved self-esteem, which increases motivation. McNinch (1997) applied the EBL program in a summer program at an elementary school in a small American town and provided cash reward. Adult volunteers discussed readings with 20 participant children with academic problems. Findings indicate improvement in self-esteem (84%), school grades (72%), reading levels (63%) and school attitudes (86%). McNinch (1997) concludes that providing students with environments rich with books, caring adults and rewards can improve reading motivation. In the above section, we attempted to review some of the available literature on the topic. Most researchers seem to reach the same conclusion. A variety of materials should be available to students to cater for different learning styles, and perhaps differentiated instruction should take place. Courses geared towards teaching the target language across the curriculum should be offered. Classes should be student centered. This can be achieved through cooperative learning and use of technology to name a few ways. Learners have to be motivated to learn and become efficient in the target language. This can be achieved by promoting positive student attitudes towards the language.

TYPES OF LANGUAGE MOTIVATION

Instrumental Motivation

People have many different reasons for studying a foreign language; sometimes people study a language for practical reasons while other times people have a special affinity for the particular language and its people. Language teachers are often very aware of the career advantages that language proficiency can bring, but to many language learners, studying the language is only an abstract undertaking required for an academic degree.

Since the seminal work of Gardner and Lambert in 1972, language teachers and researchers have recognized the important role that motivation plays in language learning. Gardner and Lambert are responsible for proposing the most commonly used framework for understanding the different motivations that language learners typically have. They distinguish two types of language learning motivation: instrumental motivation and integrative motivation.

Learners with an instrumental motivation want to learn a language because of a practical reason such as getting a salary bonus or getting into college. Many college language learners have a clear instrumental motivation for language learning: They want to fulfill a college language requirement! Integratively motivated learners want to learn the language so that they can better understand and get to know the people who speak that language. In the North American context, integrative motivation has proven to be a strong impetus to successful language learning.

The new language teachers in this video clip discuss their own and their students' instrumental motivations for language learning. The motivations described here range from using the language to study philosophy to imagining a career in beer production. In addition to having different reasons for language learning, some of the learners described here are more strongly motivated than others.

Integrative Motivation

Some learners have a personal affinity for the people who speak a particular language. This is the second type of language learning motivation described by Gardner and Lambert and is called integrative motivation.

Learners who are integratively motivated want to learn the language because they want to get to know the people who speak that language. They are also interested in the culture associated with that language. Integratively motivated learners may have significant others such as a boyfriend or girlfriend or family members who speak the language, and heritage language learners typically have a particularly strong integrative motivation for language learning. Several studies have found that language learners who are integratively motivated are more successful than those who are instrumentally motivated; it is likely that integratively motivated language learners are more successful because their motivation is stronger than that of instrumentally motivated students especially in North America.

Maintaining Motivation

As noted previously, student motivation does not remain perfectly constant over time. Students tend to retain their motivation when the class content matches their goals and they have positive feelings about the target language and its speakers

Student motivation tends to be stronger when the learner has specific rather than general goals for language learning. It can be very helpful when teachers help learners develop more specific goals for language learning. Many language learners start language study with a desire to use the particular foreign language, but by the time they have studied the language for a few semesters, they have lost their original motivations and become concerned only with their grades.

Attitudes Toward a Language Affect Motivation

Motivation for language learning can be lessened when students have negative attitudes or prejudices toward the target language and/or the people who speak that language. Students may have positive feelings about learning Spanish but negative feelings about learning varieties of Spanish that are spoken within the United States. A student might want to learn Castilian Spanish but not what they refer to as "Spanglish" or "TexMex." It is unrealistic to think that prejudices towards specific languages or groups that exist outside of the classroom will not enter the classroom.

It is usually helpful to touch base with your students from time to time to be sure that they don't lose track of their reasons for learning the language while immersed in the day to day details of a language class.