MEDIA AS A TOOL FOR PROMOTING ARTS AND CULTURE THROUGH TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.1 Conceptual Framework
2.1.1 THE MASS MEDIA
The mass media are the instruments of information dissemination in any modern society, as they are central to the input-output functions of any state, whether democratic or authoritarian. Turner (1984) observes that popular culture and the mass media have a symbiotic relationship, as each depends on the other in an intimate relationship.
Lasswell (1968) has noted that man usually looked forward to something to learn and watch over his environment, such as, new opportunities, trade and commerce, conflicts resolution, social changes, scientific discoveries and inventions, among other issues that have public consequences.
The mass media disseminate information on public policies, government development programmes, public laws and decisions, activities, budgets, other revenue and monetary matters, as well as such matters as health, security, social and political issues that bother on nation building.
The media also entertain and educate the public, make surveillance of the society and expose any potential danger to the public, as well as set the agenda on the salient public issues that affect the society (Nwekeaku, 2010).
Section 21 of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria provides that the press, radio, television and other agencies of the mass media shall at all times be free to uphold the fundamental objectives contain in this chapter, and uphold the responsibility and accountability of the government to the people.
Generally, the media have both the legal and social mandate to partner with the cultural agencies for proper orientation, education and mobilization of the citizenry for full implementation of the Transformation agenda of the Jonathan administration.
Mass media is communication—whether written, broadcast, or spoken—that reaches a large audience. This includes television, radio, advertising, movies, the Internet, newspapers, magazines, and so forth.
Mass media is a significant force in modern culture, particularly in America. Sociologists refer to this as a mediated culture where media reflects and creates the culture. Communities and individuals are bombarded constantly with messages from a multitude of sources including TV, billboards, and magazines, to name a few. These messages promote not only products, but moods, attitudes, and a sense of what is and is not important. Mass media makes possible the concept of celebrity: without the ability of movies, magazines, and news media to reach across thousands of miles, people could not become famous. In fact, only political and business leaders, as well as the few notorious outlaws, were famous in the past. Only in recent times have actors, singers, and other social elites become celebrities or “stars.”
The current level of media saturation has not always existed. As recently as the 1960s and 1970s, television, for example, consisted of primarily three networks, public broadcasting, and a few local independent stations. These channels aimed their programming primarily at two‐parent, middle‐class families. Even so, some middle‐class households did not even own a television. Today, one can find a television in the poorest of homes, and multiple TVs in most middle‐class homes. Not only has availability increased, but programming is increasingly diverse with shows aimed to please all ages, incomes, backgrounds, and attitudes. This widespread availability and exposure makes television the primary focus of most mass‐media discussions. More recently, the Internet has increased its role exponentially as more businesses and households “sign on.” Although TV and the Internet have dominated the mass media, movies and magazines—particularly those lining the aisles at grocery checkout stands—also play a powerful role in culture, as do other forms of media.
2.1.2 ROLE OF THE MEDIA
The role of the media will be summarized thus:
Information Dissemination
The media should disseminate information on the transformation agenda to Nigerian citizens through news stories, features stories, news commentaries/analysis, among others. Communication media serve to transmit information and symbolic content to individuals whose manners remain fundamentally unchanged (Sociology, 2012). Education and enlightenment- The media should educate the people on all government policies, programmes and projects of the transformation agenda. Many Nigerians, including some public officers do not really understand what the transformation agenda entails. Sewant (2000) captures this role of the media when he notes thus: ... None of the functions which the citizens have to perform in democracy can be performed by them in the absence of full and truthful information. Who can furnish information to the people at large, constantly and regularly, except the mass communication like the media?...Media, whether print or electronic are the only institution which can keep people, as well as those in authority informed on all matters and at all times ofthe day.
Interpretation and Analysis
The media should analyze and interpret government policies, programmes and projects, as well as let both the government and the citizens know their implications and consequences when implemented.
Watch Dog and Surveillance
The media should be the watchdog of government by monitoring the activities of public officers and exposing the ills of the government and the society. UNESCO (2007) observes that:
The media can fulfill a watchdog role by reporting on the activities of governments, civil society and the private sector. A plurality of media outlets is the key for this to occur because of the breadth of material to report on and to ensure that different opinions will be heard. The media enable the citizensto be informed and participate in their society, which generates real empowerment.
Entertainment
The media entertain the public through music, dance, drama, film, among others, thus reducing tension and the tendency to run hypertension and eventual stroke among the populace. Government policies, programmes and projects could be disseminated through the instrumentality of the mediabacked entertainment industry.
Sustainability and Continuity of Culture
The media help to sustain and perpetuate the culture of a people through a variety of channels. Corporate media are used primarily to represent and reproduce dominant ideologies (Wikipedia, 2013)
Advertising and Public Relations
Government policies, programmes and projects could communicate or disseminated to the public through advertising and public relations. Wikipedia (2013) note that media culture, with its declinations of advertising and public relations, is often considered as a system centered on the manipulation of the mass of society.
2.1.3 MEDIA STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT AGENDA
The cultural agencies and the media can adopt a number of strategies to disseminate and market the policies, programmes and projects of the Transformation agenda. These strategies may include:
News stories- The media can generate news stories on the transformation agenda through organized press conference[s], press briefings, interviews and monitoring visits, workshops, conferences, among others.
News commentaries and analysis- media men can always interpret and analyze the agenda activities and educate the public on their likely consequences. The media, through news commentaries and analysis can offer alternative options for any policy or action of government.
Features stories- Features stories offer journalists the opportunity to package, garnish and deliver stories in a soft and comprehensible pattern or state to the society.
Editorials-Editorial is a powerful instrument to x-ray important public policies, programmes and projects. It offers a media organization the opportunity to give a comprehensive analysis of any public matter, bringing out clearly its possible implications.
Special projects- The media can do special and commissioned reports on various sections [programmes, projects and activities] of the transformation agenda.
Special programmes- Special media programmes, such as, who wants to be a millionaire? kakaki of AIT, omenani Igbo, among others, could be used to disseminate some aspects of the agenda to the public.
Documentary- This offers the media a great opportunity to do a comprehensive package of a programme, project and activity integrating the past, present and future of that phenomenon into a complete hole.
Drama-Special media drama, such as, the masquerade, the Fuji house of commotion, the super story, papa Ajaccio, among others, could be created and regularly aired through several media outlets.
Multi-media-Special and deliberate multi-media programmes should be designed and adopted to interpret, analyze, disseminate and educate the public on the activities of the agenda.
2.1.4 MEDIA CONSTRAINTS ON DEVELOPMENT AGENDA
The media are likely to encounter some problems that may limit their active participation in the transformation agenda. These problems include:
Editorial interference- Media owners, especially government and politicians do interfere on the editorial content for selfish interests, thereby limiting or even preventing them from objective, fearless and independent editorial.
Mass poverty, hunger, unemployment, inflation, naira depreciation, among other economic woes, have restricted media information to few privileged members of the society who could afford the prohibit costs of media information today.
Lack of basic infrastructural facilities, such as, electricity, good asset roads, have restricted media information to state capitals and few urban centers, when over 70 per cent of the population live in the rural areas.
Economic reforms, such as, commercialization, privatization, liberalization and monetization have reduced the editorial content and other media information to the purchasing power of the news sources, who are now compelled to pay or perish. Payment for news items compromises the editorial quality and content of the media.
Lack of relevant education and adequate training limit the ability of media men to understand, analyze, interpret and disseminate technical and specialized materials to the public.
Intimidation and harassment of media men with security agencies by public officers tend to discourage some media men from performing their duties. Many agents of
Nigeria’s press have been imprisoned, exiled, tortured, or murdered by agents of government (Wikipedia, 2009)
Existence of some obnoxious and punitive laws tends to limit media information gathering, processing and dissemination in the country. Such laws include:
Protection of Public Officers Against Accusation
Seditious Publication Act[1958 Criminal Code, 1963 Penal Code Laws of Northern Nigeria]
Obscene Publication Act of 1961, and
Newspaper [Amendment] Act of 1964, among others.
2.1.5 THE WAY FORWARD
The media will partner more actively with the cultural agencies in propagating the Transformation Agenda if the following measures are adopted:
Provision of electricity, good road network and other infrastructural facilities for easy access of media information in the rural areas.
Establishment and promotion of community radios, televisions and newspapers in the rural areas for easier dissemination of agenda information in the rural communities.
Institution of insurance scheme and enhanced welfare package for media men in the country for a sense of security, fearless and contentment among journalists as they discharge their duties. The quest for ‘brown envelop’ has done great damage to news gathering, processing and dissemination in Nigeria.
Removal of tariffs on media materials and equipment will lower the cost of news gathering, processing and dissemination of the agenda policies, programmes and projects.
Full application of the Freedom of Information Act by media men will facilitate information gathering and dissemination in the country.
Regular workshops, seminars, conferences and other short term professional trainings will improve the knowledge and skills of media men on transformation agenda matters.
Restructuring of the economy for equitable distribution of resources in the country, so that more people can afford the cost of media information.
Cultural re-armament aimed at containing the increasing wave of westernization, and subsequent promotion of indigenous dressing code, music, food, dancing, languages and the gamut of the cultural lives of Nigerians.
High patronage of made in Nigeria products, such as, fabrics, food stuff, shoes, among others, by both government and private organizations and individuals.
2.1.6 CULTURAL AGENCIES
Fotopoulus (1999) defines culture as the integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behaviour. Fotopoulos likens culture with what he calls dominant social paradigm, which he explains as the system of beliefs, ideas and the corresponding values that are dominant in a particular society at a particular moment of its history.
In a similar vein Duke (2013) sees culture as a way of life of a given people which includes any piece of a pattern of behaviour, the attitude, norms, values, objects, skills, belief system, and world outlook which human beings learn and adopt as members of a living human group or society.
Generally, culture can be seen as the gamut of a people’s maze way, which includes value and belief system, religion, language, art, customs and traditions, ethnocentrism and technology that are dear and particular to them and transmitted from one generation to another.
Nigeria is made up of over 250 ethnic groups, each of which has its distinct culture that constantly strives for survival, relevance or even outright domination in the country’s multicultural contest. The culture of the major ethnic groups struggle for dominance at the national, geopolitical zone and state levels, while the rest fight back for recognition and relevance in the scheme of things.
The cultural agencies are the institutions whose mandate or official duties include the sustenance, protection and promotion of the country’s art and cultural heritage. These cultural agencies include National Institute for Cultural Orientation, NICO, National Council for Arts and Culture, NCAC, National Gallery of Arts, NGA, National Institute for Hospitality and Tourism, NIHOTOUR, and Nigerian Tourism Development Corporation, NTDC. Others are Centre for Black and Africans Arts and Civilization, CBAAC, National Commission of Museums and Monuments, National Theatre/National Troupe of Nigeria, among others, including several state councils of Arts and Culture.
These institutions, individually and collectively, are entrusted with the enormous responsibilities of sustaining, packaging, promoting, marketing and protecting Nigeria’s cultural heritage for the realization of the objectives of the Transformation Agenda. To realize these objectives, the various cultural agencies have to partner with the media for proper packaging, dissemination, orientation, education, propagation and marketing of the agenda.
NICO has the mandate to train cultural officers, motivators and communicators who would be grounded in Nigerian cultural realities, philosophy and practices that are essential for national integration, peace, unity and development of the multi-ethnic Nigeria (National Institute for Cultural Orientation, 2013). Other agencies have similar mandate, which, collectively are expected to facilitate the implementation of the development agenda.
2.1.7 The Lost Cultural Heritage
Some physical representations of Nigeria‟s cultural heritage include palaces, architecturally sophisticated and unique city walls and gates, shrines, smelting furnaces, arts and crafts, pottery making, traditional foods and drinks. In the pre-colonial Nigeria, religious ceremonies and ritual practices played very significant role in inspiring those creative works usually classified as „arts‟ while those objects made to serve functional purposes are classified as „crafts‟. These arts and crafts flourished because of the vital roles they played in both the secular and religious life of the people at the time. Some were inspired and intricately connected with important ceremonial occasions such as birth, puberty, marriage, and death. It was, however, a major setback for the societies within the territory that subsequently formed the modern Nigeria the loss of substantial aspects of their cultural heritage to the foreign powers, particularly in the looting that characterized the colonial period. Different writers have attested to flourishing ancient cultural heritage and the subsequent experience of cultural deprivation in the West African region:
The region known as West Africa enjoyed a long history of some of the greatest empires and kingdoms in Black race before some European civilizations came into being. This region is celebrated for names like the old Ghana empire, the Kanem Bornu empire, the Mali and Songhai empires, the great Benin kingdom and such cultures that still dwarf some of the best known elsewhere in the world – Igbo Ukwu, Ife bronze head, Nok culture, Ashanti kingdom and the myths of the golden stool…This rich culture was soon abandoned with the advent of alien cultures and peoples, thus, West Africa became the epicentre of the debilitating trans-Sahara slave trade…Colonialism that followed thereafter did not do much good to West Africa as it only perpetrated western cultures … this trend is still reflected in some of the undue attachment of these independent states to European powers (Abang, 2010:5).
Similarly, during my personal visit to the British Museum in May 2008 and the tour of the section named The Sainsbury African Galleries, this inscription was found so conspicuous:
These galleries provide an insight into aspects of the cultural life of Africa, past and present. They include artefacts drawn from the entire continent and from many historical periods (Inscription at The British Museum, London, May 2008).
The evidence of the loss by force of vital aspects of African cultural heritage to other regions of the world in the past was obvious at the British Museum. For instance, within The Sainsbury African Galleries was the vivid description of The Discovery of Benin Art by the West as follows:
The West discovered Benin art following the sack of Benin City by the British in 1897. In the 1890s Benin resisted British control over southern Nigeria. In March 1897, retaliating for the killing of British representatives, a punitive expedition conquered the capital. Thousands of treasures were taken as booty, including around 1000 brass plaques from the palace. The Foreign Office auctioned the official booty to cover the cost of the expedition. Large numbers of ivories, brass and wood works were retained and sold by the officers. Benin treasures caused an enormous sensation, fuelling an appreciation for African art which profoundly influenced 20th century Western art. About 16 museums, mostly in Britain and Germany, purchased the works, notably the British Museum and the Berlin Museum. In the 1970s, interest in Benin grew. Now around 85 museums in 18 countries have Benin collections, the largest being in Britain, Germany, the US and Nigeria (copied from the inscription at the British Museum during my personal visit, 17thMay 2008).
The implication of this is that substantial number of Nigeria‟s art and craft works of the past that would have provided vivid picture and reconstruction of the rich cultural heritage of the Nigerian people currently adorn world‟s major museums where they have been attested to rank among other world‟s masterpiece. Such items include masks, bronzes, ivories, wooden statues, terracotta, among others.
Another contributory factor to the loss of Africa‟s cultural heritage was the attempt in the 15th century by the
European voyagers who “tried to fit the „new‟ lands into an existing view of the world” (British Museum, 2008). This plan was irrespective of the voyager‟s observation that such kingdoms as the Benin Kingdom, Yoruba Kingdom, among others were at that particular time very powerful. Benin, for instance, had been a powerful state in West Africa since the 13th century with early accounts of the size and splendor of Benin City being highly favourable. In the recent decades, Nigeria has lost some vital cultural heritage such as the groundnut pyramid in the north while coal mine in Enugu (Eastern Nigeria), cocoa in the southwestern Nigeria are not being harnessed for tourism purpose. This is as a result of heavy dependence of the Nigerian state on the windfall from petroleum. Despite the loss, a tour of the Nigerian societies will reveal the resilience of the people to rebuild those crafts and architecture that are distinct of each society as discussed in the next section.
2.1.8 History of Nigeria Art
The history of Nigerian art dates back years before the Nigerian man conceptualized such creations as art. However, the recorded history of Nigerian art can be traced to less than two hundred years of expression. There are numerous traditional artwork and origins, Nigerian arts and craft, only ancestors are the humans who can tell how it started. The list of traditional art and their origins are endless. Art itself is an expression of the author/artist/artiste’s imaginative activities. Art can be visual, audio and performed. There is art in every life form. Art is the most unexplainable concept as its meaning varies among individuals. Art is a medium of expression, art is whatever the creator says it is. With different styles and techniques, Nigerian art has evolved from ancient yet remained same at the same time. Nigerian art has always been daring and crafty, with deep cultural meaning just like Nigerian art of today. The only difference is in the stories they tellEuropean colonies began exploring Africa in the 15th century. Home to millions of tribes, each with unique cultures, Nigeria is one nation whose culture is depicted through art forms such as dance, literature, music, arts and craft, fashion and more. By the Benue river, the Nok culture lies. Belied to be the earliest settlement of ancient Nigeria, it can be said that the Nok culture pioneered the growth of other cultures of the people.
Nigerian art takes you into a world, where stone, wood and glass carvings, pottery, wire works, and paintings are heavily explored. The average Nigerian sees his/her countries art as deep, distinctive, and Afrocentric. Nigerian art majors in sculpture, masks, and textiles, many pieces too lost to count. Most of these art pieces sit in foreign museums located in colonial countries. Many stolen from the land in a quest to exploit the continent, and others were given in exchange for other items unfamiliar and fascinating to our ancestral fathers. Though slavery ripped a huge part of Nigerian culture from the history books, records, and artifacts missing, important details of Nigerian artistic heritage survived the tongues of its people who told stories to the next generation and the next. Significant Nigerian art everyone learns about in social studies are Nok Art, Ife Art, and Benin Art, and there is more to traditional Nigerian artwork and their origin.
2.1.9 The Process of Rebuilding Nigeria’s Cultural Heritage
There have been efforts at the local and global levels to resuscitate and preserve cultural heritage. Worthy of mention at the global level is the effort of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to designate, on the basis of six cultural and four natural criteria, sites of „outstanding universal value‟ around the world as World Heritage Centre. Similarly, governments and private investors in the developed and developing countries have also been involved in financing and promoting the packaging of cultural heritage to create some unique identities for the societies and as attractions to prospective tourists. So far, some African countries in North Africa, East Africa, Southern Africa, and Gambia in the West African region have made tremendous progress in their tourism sector, far ahead of Nigeria. Nonetheless, Nigeria‟s prospect for tourism subsists on its diversity in people, culture, nature, and untapped investment opportunities. Natural diversity which includes Edo and ocean beaches, wildlife, vast tracts of natural vegetation, waterfalls, and varied climatic conditions are some major attractions while traveling through the Nigerian landscape. Major cultural attractions include traditional ways of life often preserved in local customs, fascinating history and lifestyles, handicrafts and other creative products of the people. Some of these adorn the museums, art galleries, cultural, religious and national festivals, historical monuments, buildings, arts and crafts. The natural assets include mountains such as Olumo Rock in Abeokuta, Idanre Hills in Ondo; Edo, waterfalls and warm springs as found at Ikogosi in Ekiti State, Wikki Warm Spring at Yankari National Park; beaches, national parks, games/forest reserves, botanical and zoological gardens, beautiful landscape and high altitude sceneries of Jos, Mambila, Obudu, wildlife and national parks such as the famous Yankari Games Reserve.
The conscious efforts to promote tourism industry can be dated to be 1962. These efforts were, however, punctuated by decades of dictatorial military governments, bad governance, and lack of tourism infrastructures. The period 1991 marked a new beginning and some actions initiated by the national government to promote Nigeria‟s cultural heritage include formulation of the National Tourism Policy (NTP) in 1990, creation of the Nigerian Tourism Development Corporation (NTDC) in 1992, establishment of the National Institute for Hospitality and Tourism (NIHOTOUR) in Kano, the adoption of Tourism Master Plan and creation of the National Tourism Council with the Nigerian President as the chairman. The strength of NTDC is found in its emotive slogan “Tourism is life”. The civilian government of President Olusegun Obasanjo further created the Federal Ministry of Culture and Tourism in June 1999 for the overall promotion of Nigeria‟s immense and rich cultural heritage. The vision of the Ministry is to position culture and tourism as leverage for economic growth. This is the motivating factor behind the idea of Abuja Carnival, which started in 2005 as a week-long annual event designed to bring the Nigerian people together to showcase their cultural heritage. The event features street carnival, Durbar, traditional cuisine, street show for masquerade, Boat Regatta, musical fiesta, exhibitions, among others.
2.1.11 Social Infrastructure and Tourism in Nigeria
A major hindrance to tourism development in Nigeria is the lack of necessary modern infrastructural facilities.
Nigeria ranked 119 out of 131 countries and 2.2 on the scale of 1 to 7 on infrastructure on the Global Competitive Index 2007-2008(The Nation, 2009:6). For Nigeria and others not doing well on this parameter, Honey and Gilpin (2009:1) recommended in their executive summary „investment in infrastructure and human capacity, the development of comprehensive national strategies, the adoption of robust regulatory frameworks, mechanisms to maximize in-country foreign currency earnings, and efforts to reduce crime and corruption.‟ Besides lack of efficient and easy to understand transportation system, most Nigerian towns and cities are not planned, no proper labeling of streets and houses, and no reliable guide map illustrating what to see in a given destination and precise location. People mostly depend on oral descriptions, which most often imprecise to locate places of interest. Similarly, many other social problems have been traced to high level of poverty among the vast majority of the Nigerian populace.
Similar to the infrastructural deficiencies is the lack of organized tour operators necessary to marketing tour destinations. The optimism here is that the sustenance of the current democratic governance will boost the nation‟s image among the comity of nations and enhance investment opportunities particularly in the tourism sector. The extent of attracting investors, both local and foreign, into the abundant tourism potentials will depend on the extent good governance is institutionalized. The enormity of the Nigeria‟s tourism infrastructural deficiency is vivid in the quote below:
For tourism potentials in Nigeria to be utilized sustainably, the necessary infrastructures and enabling environment and information on tourism which will attract tourists must be available. Enabling environment in this case refers to all the parameters required to make a complete tour, such as good roads, functional telecommunications, good accommodation and adequate security. Information on the existence of attractions sites and these infrastructures must be available to tourists and the general public. This means that raw data on tourist sites and infrastructures has to be gathered, processed, structured, then stored and organized in such a way it is easily retrievable from storage (Ologun, Taiwo and Adeofun, n.d.).
The sector has suffered from inadequate funding in the past years. The implications of the low level of funding include low development of tourist facilities and sites, low demand, apathy and poor perception of tourism in Nigeria.
2.1.12 Security, Mass Media and Tourism in Nigeria
Security considerations feature prominently in tourism decisions, whether local or international. Whereas security information can be obtained from several sources, the mass media play a major role in bringing such report to public knowledge in the contemporary world. Since negative occurrences usually make the news more than “good news”, it is not surprising that most unstable societies often do not enjoy high tourism patronage because of the volume of negative information being relayed on them through the local and international mass media. Not only do the media report the news, they create the news by deciding what to report. As the information concerning various societies are transmitted through the news items to which the public are exposed, this influences the way the public view the story as well as the people involved in the events. Thus, the mass media through subtle means create unconscious images of the people and events, which ultimately influences the way they relate with the realities surrounding the concepts (Asakitikpi, 2009).
The mass media are complex organizations involved in developing messages which are usually transmitted to thousands of people at the same time locally and/or internationally. The ability to communicate to a wide variety of people at different geographical locations at the same time grants the mass media the advantage of speed and source of information that are not location-bound. Thus far, the content of the news, particularly the international media, and its indiscriminate dissemination constitute one dimension to the problem of poor image of tourism in most African countries, Nigeria in particular.
The more favourable a country is ranked on security the more progress such would make in tourism, and vice versa. Even though Nigerians have been generally described as friendly to visitors, incessant threat to security of lives and properties remains a major concern and often gauged by potential tourists. More than any other regions of the world, the sub-Sahara African region has witnessed political instabilities of different dimensions, thus contributing to the region ranking least in security provisioning. Particularly in Nigeria, promotion of cultural heritage through tourism has been greatly hampered by the problem of insecurity, especially the frightening dimension of kidnapping in the oil-rich NigerDelta region, and of late, the Boko Haram insurgency. The emergence of militancy in the Nigeria‟s oil-rich Niger-Delta region and cases of kidnapping targeted at the outset at the petroleum industry employees, particularly the expatriates in the 1990s and 2000s affected significantly the fledgy tourism industry in Nigeria. However, just as the security situation in the destination countries is important, so also literatures have shown that tourists do upset social stability in the host community. For instance, in the submission made by Honey and Gilpin (2009:1) in their study of India, Kenya, and Nigeria: (i) that relative peace and some degree of economic development are preconditions for a successful tourism industry; (ii) although it has the capacity to help promote peace and prosperity, tourism can also cause a great deal of harm unless it carefully developed; (iii) to deliver optimal benefits, tourism must be respectful of the environment and mindful of cultural and social traditions; and (iv) tourism must be supported by a coherent national strategy and robust laws.
With this hind-sight, one can argue that tourism-related influx of people of other cultures into a particular environment can also generate some anti-social behaviour unknown in the host communities. For instance, the growth of prostitution, crime and gambling has been mentioned frequently as negative effects of tourism development (Wall and Mathieson, 2006:242). This is true of some leading cities in Nigeria such as Lagos, Abuja, Portharcourt, Benin and Warri that are cosmopolitan and experienced significant number of domestic and foreign visitors, thus paving the way for prostitution and other forms of crimes. Other negative consequences are the dark effects of foreign culture and spread of communicable diseases across borders.
On the final note, as real as these security problems are in the African region, the fact remains that they are often exaggerated in the media where “bad news” are given the prime of place and often gained substantial global interest (Asakitikpi, 2009). Comparing the content of the international media and what obtains in reality, it is arguable that there are vast unseen sections of the Nigerian societies that need to be projected. Strictly speaking, an improvement in the security situation of a nation will significantly boost her tourism industry as tourists are usually selective of their destinations.
2.1.13 Highlights of Nigeria’s Tourism Policy
The investment situation in Nigeria immediately after political independence from colonial rule on 1st October 1960 was largely state dominated particularly through successive Development Plans. This situation changed dramatically from mid-1980s as a result of the introduction of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) as well as the market driven economic policies that followed SAP. Some incentives were packaged by the government in the 1990 National Tourism Policy to enhance private sector participation. The main thrust of government‟s tourism policy is to generate foreign exchange, encourage even development, promote tourism based rural enterprises, generate employment and accelerate rural-urban integration and cultural exchange. The major strategies towards achieving these include:
i. Infrastructural Development: this requires that government will provide basic infrastructural facilities such as good roads, water, electricity, communications and hotels to centres of attraction in order to accelerate their development for the purpose of exploiting fully their touristic value. The realization of this goal depends on liaising and networking among appropriate government agencies responsible for tourism promotion and development through infrastructural provisioning.
ii. Concession of Land: this requires government at various levels to provide land without any hindrance for tourism development at concessional rates and conditions favourable to investment and the realization of investment thereon. The approach to achieving this include abolition of annual ground rent within the period of construction and development of tourism, demarcation of potential Tourism Zones and their products from other usage, among others.
iii. Fiscal and Other Incentives: to boost the level of private sector investment in tourism, it is treated by government as a preferred sector, like agriculture. Government also introduced such incentives as, tax holidays, tax rebate and soft loans, with long period of grace to potential investors in the tourism sector.
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.2.1 Limited-effects theory
The limited‐effects theory argues that because people generally choose what to watch or read based on what they already believe, media exerts a negligible influence. This theory originated and was tested in the 1940s and 1950s. Studies that examined the ability of media to influence voting found that well‐informed people relied more on personal experience, prior knowledge, and their own reasoning. However, media “experts” more likely swayed those who were less informed. Critics point to two problems with this perspective. First, they claim that limited‐effects theory ignores the media's role in framing and limiting the discussion and debate of issues. How media frames the debate and what questions members of the media ask change the outcome of the discussion and the possible conclusions people may draw. Second, this theory came into existence when the availability and dominance of media was far less widespread.
2.2.2 Class-dominant theory
The class‐dominant theory argues that the media reflects and projects the view of a minority elite, which controls it. Those people who own and control the corporations that produce media comprise this elite. Advocates of this view concern themselves particularly with massive corporate mergers of media organizations, which limit competition and put big business at the reins of media—especially news media. Their concern is that when ownership is restricted, a few people then have the ability to manipulate what people can see or hear. For example, owners can easily avoid or silence stories that expose unethical corporate behavior or hold corporations responsible for their actions.
The issue of sponsorship adds to this problem. Advertising dollars fund most media. Networks aim programming at the largest possible audience because the broader the appeal, the greater the potential purchasing audience and the easier selling air time to advertisers becomes. Thus, news organizations may shy away from negative stories about corporations (especially parent corporations) that finance large advertising campaigns in their newspaper or on their stations. Television networks receiving millions of dollars in advertising from companies like Nike and other textile manufacturers were slow to run stories on their news shows about possible human‐rights violations by these companies in foreign countries. Media watchers identify the same problem at the local level where city newspapers will not give new cars poor reviews or run stories on selling a home without an agent because the majority of their funding comes from auto and real estate advertising. This influence also extends to programming. In the 1990s a network cancelled a short‐run drama with clear religious sentiments, Christy, because, although highly popular and beloved in rural America, the program did not rate well among young city dwellers that advertisers were targeting in ads.
Critics of this theory counter these arguments by saying that local control of news media largely lies beyond the reach of large corporate offices elsewhere, and that the quality of news depends upon good journalists. They contend that those less powerful and not in control of media have often received full media coverage and subsequent support. As examples they name numerous environmental causes, the anti‐nuclear movement, the anti‐Vietnam movement, and the pro‐Gulf War movement. While most people argue that a corporate elite controls media, a variation on this approach argues that a politically “liberal” elite controls media. They point to the fact that journalists, being more highly educated than the general population, hold more liberal political views, consider themselves “left of center,” and are more likely to register as Democrats. They further point to examples from the media itself and the statistical reality that the media more often labels conservative commentators or politicians as “conservative” than liberals as “liberal.” Media language can be revealing, too. Media uses the terms “arch” or “ultra” conservative, but rarely or never the terms “arch” or “ultra” liberal. Those who argue that a political elite controls media also point out that the movements that have gained media attention—the environment, anti‐nuclear, and anti‐Vietnam—generally support liberal political issues. Predominantly conservative political issues have yet to gain prominent media attention, or have been opposed by the media. Advocates of this view point to the Strategic Arms Initiative of the 1980s Reagan administration. Media quickly characterized the defense program as “Star Wars,” linking it to an expensive fantasy. The public failed to support it, and the program did not get funding or congressional support.
2.2.3 Culturalist theory
The culturalist theory, developed in the 1980s and 1990s, combines the other two theories and claims that people interact with media to create their own meanings out of the images and messages they receive. This theory sees audiences as playing an active rather than passive role in relation to mass media. One strand of research focuses on the audiences and how they interact with media; the other strand of research focuses on those who produce the media, particularly the news.
Theorists emphasize that audiences choose what to watch among a wide range of options, choose how much to watch, and may choose the mute button or the VCR remote over the programming selected by the network or cable station. Studies of mass media done by sociologists parallel text‐reading and interpretation research completed by linguists (people who study language). Both groups of researchers find that when people approach material, whether written text or media images and messages, they interpret that material based on their own knowledge and experience. Thus, when researchers ask different groups to explain the meaning of a particular song or video, the groups produce widely divergent interpretations based on age, gender, race, ethnicity, and religious background. Therefore, culturalist theorists claim that, while a few elite in large corporations may exert significant control over what information media produces and distributes, personal perspective plays a more powerful role in how the audience members interpret those messages.
2.3 Empirical Review
Bankole (2013)investigated thatNigeria is vast in tourism potentials, historic towns and highly diversified cultural heritage embodying people’s traditions, religion and belief systems, festivals and ceremonies. The capacity of these symbolic representations of peoples values, identity, and heritage to earn Nigeria substantial revenue is not in doubt. However, the inability to transform them to tourism assets has been a major concern to stakeholders. This paper examines Nigeria’s vast cultural heritage and the prospect of harnessing them towards tourism sector development. The paper synthesizes both primary and secondary information on cultural heritage in Nigeria. The discourse shows that tourism development in Nigeria is encumbered with many systemic problems. The „loss‟ and the rebuilding efforts of the cultural heritage were discussed. Major recommendations suggest concerted efforts from the government, private sector operators and host communities. Very key are need for investment in infrastructures and the political will to democratically resolve the perennial problem of insecurity.
Charlse (2014) investigated that the challenges of the cultural agencies and the mass media in promoting the implementation of the Transformation Agenda of the Jonathan Administration, as well as mapping out effective strategies for improved performance of the media in the transformation process. Secondary data, generated through documentary evidence, were used for the analysis, while the Systems theory, as enunciates by David Easton, was adopted as a theoretical framework. It was discovered that the media and cultural agencies would play active role in the information dissemination process of the agenda through editorials, news and features stories, special projects, documentaries, special and sponsored programmes, drama and video shows among others. However, the role of the media and cultural agencies are hampered by economic woes, lack of basic infrastructural facilities, high tariffs on media materials and equipment, existence of some obnoxious media laws, editorial interference, limited and poor education of some media men, high rate of westernization, insecurity and ethnocentrism, among others. It is recommended that improved welfare package and insurance scheme, removal of tariffs on media equipment, regular training and retraining of media men, adoption of positive and development journalism will improve media participation in the propagation of the transformation agenda.
Nyekwere & Nwabuike (2017) investigated that The media are potent tools in mass mobilization, information dissemination, entertainment, socialization, integration, cultural promotion amongst others. The media plays a major role in cultural promotion and preservation at all levels. Cultural promotion entails that the media transmit and showcase the cultural heritage of a people to others such that those who are not aware of it become fully aware and also acquaint the incoming generation with their culture. Most of these cultures have gone into extinction or tilting towards going into extinction as a result of non-transmission to incoming generation. This paper xrays the role of the media in tourism development in Nigeria with focus on Edo State. The work is anchored on the Agenda-Setting theory which explains the effects of mass communication on culture and society. The work recommends that the media should do more in terms of advocacy reportage on cultural activities of Edo State to keep the people alert and informed of such cultural activities as well as afford others the opportunity to leverage on the opportunities that such avenues provides thereby leading to tourism development in the state which will transcend to Nigeria as a whole.