EXAMINATION OF POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS TARGETING VOTERS VIA SOCIAL NETWORK SITE AND HOW IT AFFECTS VOTERS’ PREFERENCE

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The Internet: Precursor to Social Media.

Before attempting to examine what social media is all about, it would be pertinent to briefly trace the history of the internet on which social media is domiciled. The internet is what makes social media and other online application possible. The internet has been described as "one of the greatest technological innovation which have had profound impact on the way human beings communicate, conduct business and process information. It has altered the face of mass communication and other contexts of communication." (Akpan & Nnaane, 2011).

According to Baran (2010), "There are conflicting versions about the origins of internet." However, the most dominant version has it that the internet is a bye- product of the cold war between the United States of America and the former Soviet Republic. "The U.S Department of Defense was concerned about the vulnerability of its computers network to nuclear attack. The Pentagon did not want to lose all its computing and communication ability to one well-placed atomic bomb. Consequently, defense computer experts decentralized the whole system by creating an interconnected web of computer networks. The 'Net' was designed so that every computer could talk to every other computer ... thus, if one portion of the network happened to be disabled, the rest of the network could still function normally. "The system that the Pentagon eventually developed was called Arpanet." (Dominick ,2011)

The Arpanet was merely the precursor to the internet which was built by the National Science Foundation using the internet protocol and hooking together chains of regional networks that were eventually linked to a super computer. (Dominick, ibid). The invention of the internet turned the world to a 'global village' as predicted by Marshal McLuhan, (1962) many years before its invention. At its early stage, the internet was utilized primarily by scientists and computer experts and the likes. It was used to send and receive information on researches, experiments, discoveries among the scientists (Dominick 2011).

The invention of other technologies like browser, hypertext and search engines however opened up the internet to the average man and woman on the street. Students, lawyer, architects, doctor, armed forces, civil servants, governments, schools etc. all make use of the internet in their various fields nowadays. One of the most popular applications on the internet is email and it is the most commonly used. The internet also hosts websites and electronic bulletin boards where visitors can go to read information posted on those sites\boards. This era was known as the web 1.0 era because the internet was basically 'static' or 'consumatory' in nature (Duncan, 2012).

However with advances in technology, the internet has metamorphosed from a static and mainly consumatory tool to a dynamic and collaborative or exchange tool. Internet users can in addition to reading information on a website, also post their responses. Many users now generate and upload contents online in this web 2.0 era which Nwabueze (2012) observes commenced in 2004 when interactive websites merged.

As stated earlier innovations has transformed the internet from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0. Blogs, interactive web sites, file sharing, video sharing sites, picture- sharing sites social media sites are all features of the web 2.0 era (www.webopedia.com).

The internet has become an indispensable tool which is used for various purposes like information, education, commence, entertainment, shipping, researches, etc. especially in the western world. Okunna and Omenugha (2012) see the internet as “a tool for knowledge building through communication and information exchange, which has extended freedom to participate in economic, political and social process”.

It is pertinent to highlight the innovations that fuelled the growth of the internet from an exclusive communication tool used by technocrats to a worldwide phenomenon that it is today.

The invention of the World Wide Web (www) by Sir Tim Berners – Lee, Sir Sam Walker and Robert Caillau in 1991 was a major boost for the diffusion of internet technology. “The World Wide Web is pretty much a platform that makes it easy to access data on the internet. The web uses hypertext links which are pieces of code that link one site to another (www.Historyofthings.com). The www made it easy for internet users to access websites of their choice more easily.

The World Wide Web got a further boost with the invention of the first browser known as “Mosaic” in 1993. “A browser is a computer programme with a graphical user interface for displaying HTML files used to navigate the World Wide Web”. (googledictionary.com). Web pages are easily accessed and viewed with the aid of browsers. Some of the well-known browsers today are Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Opera Chrome, Safari etc. These browsers simplified the act of surfing on the internet and therefore endeared more people to the internet. The invention of search engine Yahoo In 1994 by Jerry Yang marked another milestone in the growing popularity of the internet. Search engines are “computer programmes that search databases and internet sites for the documents containing keywords specified by a user” (www.businessdictionary.com). Prior to the invention of search engines, the internet was like an ocean of information that was not quite easy to manipulate for extraction of relevant information. Today, millions of internet users utilise search engines like Google, Yahoo, Bing, Aol, Ask, Lycos etc. to search for documents, websites, files, directories and general information daily worldwide. According to Sullivan (2015) Google alone processes over a trillion searches per annum worldwide which translates to about a billion searches daily.

Further technological advances like the invention of broadband internet, mobile devices like laptops, tablets and smart phones; multiplicity of internet service providers (ISPs) amongst other innovations brought the internet closer to more people even in the developing nations. As at June 2015, there were about 3,290, 490, 584 internet users worldwide (www.internetworldstats.com), representing roughly half the world population.

Mobile telephone and smart mobile devices like cell phones are certain to increase the numbers of internet users in the world as time goes by. As a matter of fact, the Internet Society in their annual Global Internet Report (2015) predicts that “mobile internet will play a key role in bringing the next billion users online”. Its optimism is based on the facts that “smartphone sales are the majority of mobile handsets sold worldwide, and 192 countries have active 3G mobile networks which cover almost 50% of the global population”. Presently, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) reveal that there are over 6.8 billion cell phone subscription in the world (ITU Cell phone Report 2013); while the Internet Society estimates “mobile internet penetration to reach 71% by 2019” globally.

All the aforementioned technologies/inventions and others combined to make the internet as popular as it is today. The invention of social media platforms also marked another milestone in the history of the internet. Social media encompasses panoply of social networking sites, blogs, virtual game sites, micro blogs and wikis. The first major social media platform was MySpace created in 2003 and then followed by Facebook in 2004. Facebook has since overtaken MySpace and is indeed the most popular Social media platform in the world with over a billion members as at September, 2015 (www.statista.com).

2.1.1Social Media as a Concept

According to Dominick (2011), ‘the origin of social media on the web can be found in the mid-1990's when personal web pages became popular'. Social media could be defined as "a group of internet based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of web 2.0, which allows the creation and exchange of user-generated content". (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010).

These applications that make up social media are social networking sites (like Facebook, Twitter, My Space, Linked in, Hi5), video sharing web sites (You Tube, Vimeo, Photo Bucket, Meta Cafe) and web logs (Blogs) which are like personal web pages.

The Associated Press (AP) Stylebook (2013) defines Social media as “online tools that people use to connect with one another including social networks. Adibe, Odoemelam and Orji (2012) describe social media as “online content created by people using highly accessible and scalable publishing technologies to disseminate information across geographical boundaries, providing interaction among people”.

Carr and Hayes (2015) define social media as “internet – based channels that allow users to opportunistically interact and selectively self-present, either in real-time or asynchronously, with both broad and narrow audiences to derive value from user-generated content and the perception of interaction with others”.

Communication Expert Joseph Thornley (2008) defines social media as “online communications in which individuals shift fluidly and flexibly between the role of audience and author. To do this, they use social software that enables anyone without knowledge of coding, to post comment on, share or mash up content and to form communities around shared interests”.

Simply put, social media is an umbrella term used to describe the various types of internet based applications that lend themselves to content creation sharing, exchange, collaboration and social networking within a website.

Kaplan & Haenlein (2010) highlighted the various forms of social media as collaborative projects (eg wikipedia), blogs and microblogs (eg Twitter), content communities (eg YouTube, Picasso), social networking sites (eg Facebook, MySpace), virtual game worlds (eg world of warcraft) and virtual social worlds (eg second life).

The AP stylebook (2013) has a slightly different categorization of social media as: blogs, social networking sites, microblogging sites, wikis, content sharing sites, online forums, check-in services and all sorts of other sites. Irrespective of the categorizations, social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, MySpace, LinkedIn, and Vine have really become quite popular especially among the youth who utilize them to socialise, network, mobilise, for entertainment purposes amongst other uses.

Although social media platforms can be accessed via the web (eg desktop computers, laptops) they are mainly accessed via mobile devices like cell phones, tablets, iPods. According to Facebook’s 3rd quarter (2015) report, over 70% percent of total Facebook active users access it through mobile devices. The numbers are growing for Facebook and it’s from mobile. To bring it home, the same Facebook report reveals that 15 million Nigerians access the website via mobile devices monthly.

In essence, the compatibility of social media with mobile internet is a key advantage which dovetails neatly with the ever mobile lifestyle of the youth and working class adults. The following can be regarded as the key characteristics of social media which has made it tick.

1. Interactivity: The interactive nature of social media is a key characteristic that distinguishes it from the traditional mass media or web 1.0 internet. Anyone could post content online and get feedback or contributions from other members and vice versa. The interactive nature of social media has basically “democratized” the internet.
2. Accessibility: Social media is accessible to virtually everyone with a cell phone and internet connection nowadays. They are not bound by location or time as some of the mass media are.
3. Reach: The coverage of social media is quite enormous and far wider than conventional mass media as the internet is available on a global scale. Information posted on the internet will travel further than it will do on national TV or newspaper.
4. Adaptability: Social media platforms lend themselves to great adaptability with many of their inbuilt features e.g. the “Retweet” function in Twitter, attachment of photos, short videos to tweets and Facebook posts, links and “favouriting” of tweets. All those features aid the diffusion of information on social media.
5. Affordability: Using the social media to broadcast messages is far cheaper than doing same via conventional mass media. Setting up an account is basically free on social media and many users can afford to buy data bundles which are getting cheaper due to competition among the internet service providers.
6. Mobility: This is perhaps the most key characteristic of social media. Although social media is accessible from the web, majority of users access it via mobile internet mainly through their cell phones. It is a major socializing tool as it names implies; and it cuts across physical boundaries. Best of all, the social media is basically free of charge. We shall now take a closer look at the two social networking sites that are of interest to this study---Facebook and then Twitter.

2.1.2Facebook: History and Functionalities

Facebook is a social networking site that was created by Mark Zuckerberg in 2004 while he was still a student at Harvard University. It was initially restricted to Harvard students only but was later extended to include other Universities/Colleges and then later high schools in the U.S. The popularity of Facebook became worldwide and it was eventually opened up to anyone with an email address to join and create a profile.

Facebook has grown at an astronomical rate from its humble beginning as a Harvard campus networking site to a global internet giant boasting of a whooping 1.5 billion active users, making it the biggest social networking site in the world. To put it in other words, if Facebook were a country it would be the most populous country in the world (www.statista.com/264810).

Facebook can be accessed through www.facebook.com and all a prospective user needs' to open an account and create a profile is a valid email address or cell phone number. He or she provides some basic information about himself /herself such as name, sex, date of birth, and town of residence. A picture of the user is optional but encouraged by Facebook.

A profile page is created for each user that registers and it contains all the information about the user as provided by the user. Some of the functionalities of Facebook available to users are Walls (where information can be posted for friends to see), Messages (for private emails), Status (to post any kind of information for the public to view), Pictures & Videos uploading links, groups of political, social, religious or whatever leaning can be created for followers to join. Chat which is an instant messaging application is one of the major features on the website. It also comes with inbuilt search capabilities which are used to search for long lost or new friends on the social networking site by inputting their names. Online games like Scrabble, Farmville, Mafia wars etc have proved to be major attraction for users of Facebook as it is free of charge (www.facebook.com).

Needless to say, with all the aforementioned applications and features, Facebook has become a very popular "hot spot" where the youth especially "hang out" to socialize and get informed, entertained and even educated.

2.1.3Twitter: History and Functionalities

Twitter is a free micro-blogging, social messaging service that allows people to communicate brief message (140 words) called "tweets" in real time. (Dominick, 2011). When you sign up with twitter on www.twitter.com you can use the service to post and receive messages to a network of contacts. Instead of sending a dozen emails or text messages, you send one message to your twitter account, and the service distributes it to all friends or "followers". Members use twitter to organize impromptu gatherings, carry on a group conversation or just send a quick update to let people know what's going on. (Strickland, 2011)

Twitter was founded in 2006 by the trio of Jack Dorsey, Evan Williams and Biz Stone who were all programmers that were interested in creating a micro- blogging social network that could be updated via short message service (SMS).

Despite the fact that a "tweet" is limited to a maximum of 140 words, Twitter has grown at an astronomical rate since its inception. Exact numbers are hard to pin down but according to Picard (2011) there are between 200-250 million users on twitter while about 460,000 new accounts are opened daily, with about 140 million tweets sent daily.

Some of the reasons why Twitter has become a huge hit among internet users is because of its simplicity and easy- to- use format. Twitter is also accessible both from laptops with internet connection and mobile devices like mobile phones, PDA's, smart phones, ipad , etc Twitter has really proven to be the mobile social media.

Many well-known personalities have Twitter accounts that they use for political, social, informational, educational, mobilizing, canvassing purposes.

Upon opening an account on Twitter, a user will be allotted a profile page which will contain basic information like names of the user, the city or country where he/she is based; users are also encouraged to upload at least one of their pictures as a profile picture. Favourite quotes or sayings can also be included in the profile page. The next step' after setting up a profile page is to invite or search for friends/contacts (called "followers") to "follow". To do this there is an inbuilt 'search' application which is used to search for followers on Twitter. Those not on twitter already can also be invited to join via emails .There's no limit to the number of followers a 'tweeter' can follow and some prominent personalities like President Barack Obama are known to have over 9 million followers. (www.twitaholic.com).

The 'Timeline' is similar to the Wall application on Facebook, where Tweets (messages) from all of one's followers are displayed to be read. These tweets from followers can also be "Retweeted" by an individual so that the tweet is seen by other tweeters on the individual's network of followers.

Even though twitter is meant to be a micro-blogging site it nonetheless can be used to upload and post picture and also links to videos or pod casts. Many tweeters tweet and back such tweets with pictures to lend credence to it. There is also a section called Trends where the top ten most tweeted issues on Twitter are listed. Usually current events taking place in the world dominate this list. Some other times it may be about natural disasters happening somewhere, while at other times celebrities in the news make the trending list. Twitter can be used to keep up with news by 'following' any of the several media houses that now tweet most of their stories - usually the Headlines and Leads.

2.1.4Metamorphosis of Social Media

Having examined the history and functionalities of the two most popular social media--- Facebook and Twitter-in Nigeria, it would be pertinent to examine how popular and pervasive they have become in today's world.

According to the latest statistics from www. Internetstats.com as at January, 2015 there are about 1.5 billion active Facebook users globally, of which about 15 million are Nigerians. Twitter is estimated to have about a quarter of a billion active users globally. These numbers continue to grow at an astronomical rate daily as more people get to know the benefits of social media.

At inception social media was regarded by professionals as a mere social platform where people meet to socialize. Today social media is that and more. There is basically no endeavour where social media is not utilized in, from entertainment, business, governance, politics, advertising, public relations, advocacy, and even Journalism to mention but a few.

According to Gunter (2011) "Social media is being used more and more in news rooms as a tool for newsgathering and verification. The Fourth Annual Digital Journalism Study Published by the Oriella PR Network Polled 478 journalists from 15 countries and found that 47 percent of them used Twitter as a source up from just 33 percent last year. The use of Facebook as a source went up to 35 percent from 25 percent in 2010." Whereas in previous years media outlets viewed social media as an experimental platform, they now view it as a bonafide source" says Giles Fraser, co-head of the Oriella PR Network. The Washington Post Local editor Vernon Web opines "Social media are not really optional anymore; you can't do your job without them. Social media are where news often breaks first; they are a great way to cultivate, sources, track events, find experts, and to drive audiences to our journalism… You can't be a good reporter unless you are involved in the social media realm" (Pexton, 2011).

There is scarcely any national Newspaper and even Television and Radio stations that do not have and make use of Facebook and Twitter accounts. Satellite news channel Al-Jazeerah has a news programme called "The Stream" which is strictly dedicated to news events being tweeted or on Facebook and You Tube. CNN, BBC, ESPN, New York Times, Washington Post, USA Today, and even our indigenous Punch, Guardian, The Sun, This Day and others all have social media presence and activity.

Social media is however not restricted to the traditional media practitioners alone, as many average citizens make use of it to report on news of natural disasters, upheavals, accidents or uprisings as evidenced by the reportage of the Arab uprising in Egypt, Tunisia, Libya, Bahrain and Yemen by ordinary citizens of the aforementioned countries. This concept of ordinary citizens turning to amateur journalists to report on news worthy events, via social media is known as "citizen Journalism".

It is usually a sign that some development has gained traction in society when it is adopted by commercial interests. Social media have become an indispensable marketing tool; and it seems every product or service has some kind of social media tie-in. (Dominick, 2011 pg 73). Online stores like kalahari.com, smartbuyng.com, Taafoo.com, buyright.biz, awoof shop.com etc. all have Facebook and Twitter accounts which they use to promote their website, and also have Facebook/Twitter links on their respective websites.

Politicians and government officials are not left out of the social media trend. Social media has proved to be a very cheap but useful platform for politicians to propagate their manifestos, plans, views, opinions to their electorates in order to secure their votes. "It is no surprise then that computer technology is often trumpeted as the newest and best tool for increased democratic involvement and participation" (Baran 201O:pg285).

2.1.5 Review of Related Studies

Bond, Fariss, Jones, Kramer, Marlow, Settle and Fowler (2012) carried out an experiment titled “61 – million person experiment in social influence and political mobilization” and concluded that social media messages do influence people. They estimated that tens of thousands of votes eventually cast (during U.S Congressional election 2010) were generated by a single Facebook message.

Gromark and Schliesmann (2012) in their study of “The effects of politicians social media activities on voting behaviour” submitted that “there is evidence that the total social media activity has a positive effect on voter turnout”. The result for effect of social media messages on voter’s preferences was not conclusive.

Akpoveta (2015) in his study “Assessment of the impact of social media on the 2015 electioneering in Asaba, Delta State” reached the same conclusions as that of Gromark and Schliesmann by stating that “social media increased the turnout of voters by increasing information exchange and participation of the electorates”. A similar study was carried out in Anambra State by Edegoh and Anunike (2015) and they also concluded that “social media platforms present unique opportunities for mobilization of youths for political participation”.

In their own study carried out in Ondo State Okioya, Talabi and Ogundeji (2015) concluded that “social media actually stimulated voters” to participate in the electoral process in Akure metropolis. Similarly, Onyike, Ekwenchi and Chiaha (2015) in their study set in Enugu state reveal that a substantial number of respondents were influenced to a large extent by exposure to social media in the way they participated in the 2015 general elections”. Sanni (2015) reported that the majority of respondents in her study set in Oyo State agreed that “the use of social media as a political awareness tool positively influenced them in voting for the candidate(s) of their choice”.

The role of social media in shaping public opinion of Nigerians in the 2015 electioneering was the study undertaken by Nwaolikpe and Mbaka (2015) and they concluded that “the social media are influencing the public on issues that are important to them especially politically”.

The verdict of Okoro and Nwafor (2013) in their study titled “social media and political participation in Nigeria during the 2011 General elections: the lapses and lessons” was that whereas many used the technology (social media) to make vital input in the political discourse, others used it to spread hate and inciting messages.

Acholonu, Onyebuchi & Obayi (2015) in their study of the influence of social media on the political knowledge and participation of electorates in 2015 electioneering campaigns in Nigeria concluded that “there are low knowledge levels on the use of social media for political learning and use of social media has different levels of influence on electorates’ political participation.

Johnson and Perlmutter's (2010). "The Facebook Election" is a compilation of series of studies published in Mass Communication & Society Journal which examined the way in which Online Social Interactive Media (OSIM), more specifically social network sites, blogs, micro blogs, (like Twitter), video sharing sites, and online discussion forums changed the ways candidates campaigned, how the media covered the election, and how voters received information in the 2008 (U.S Presidential) election." The studies have revealed conflicting results as regards effects of social media. Cozma & Postelnicu (2008) study of "political uses and perceived effects of campaigning on My Space" concluded that in general social network sites may not have much influence on political attitudes and behaviour. Another study by Zhang, Johnson, Seltzer & Bichard (2010) titled "The influence of social network sites on political attitudes and behaviours" also reached a similar conclusion as that of Cozma & Postelnicu's study.

Conversely, Valenzuela, Park and Kee's study entitled "Is there social capital in a social network site? Facebook use and College students life satisfaction, Trust, and Participation" suggested there are positive relationships between intensity of Facebook use and students' life satisfaction, social trust, civic engagement and political participation.

Another study "Social networking sites and our lives" carried out by Hampton, Goulet, Rainie & Purcell (2011) for renowned research organization Pew Internet revealed that Facebook users are much more politically engaged than most people. According to survey conducted over the November 2010 U.S. Presidential election, it revealed that "10% of Americans reported that they had attended a political rally, 23% reported that they had tried to convince someone to vote for a specific candidate, and 66% reported that they had or intended to vote.

Bowers, Fernandez, Giurcanu & Neely's Study "The Writing on the wall: A Content Analysis of College Students' Facebook Groups for the 2008 Presidential Election" found that political discussion dominated the discussion between posters, as they used the Facebook groups to transmit important information related to the candidates' campaigns, issues, and appearances rather than for social purposes. The authors argued that the results bode well for the potential of social network sites to foster civic engagement among young voters.

A study by Hanson, Haridakis, Wagstaff, Sherma & Ponder entitled "The 2008 Presidential campaign: Political cynicism in the Age of Facebook, MySpace and You Tube examines the relationship between political cynicism and use of social media. The study reveals social media users tend to have lower political cynicism the more they utilize social media. The authors suggest the reason for this could be the strong interpersonal nature of social networking sites, as many people tend to regard their friends/family's/contacts opinions more highly than those from politicians or media.

Richey (2008) in his study "The Autoregressive influence of social network political knowledge on, voting behaviour" concluded that:

Social network have a large influence on vote choice. In particular, discussants' knowledge affects vote choice in a way similar to the autoregressive effect of political preference found by Huckfeldt, Johnson and Sprague. . . . Citizens embedded in networks seen to consider multiple opinions when making vote choices.

A Professor of Communications at Kent State University, Paul Haridakis, opined that:

The influence of social networking could be significant. Unlike a newspaper article or television broadcast, the information presented on sites like Facebook is filtered through a user's circle of friends and acquaintances… they may trust those people more that they would a media organization or a campaign.

Paul Haridakis is presently conducting a survey-based study on "How social networking sites influence voting behaviour" in conjunction with another colleague, Gary Hanson.

According to information obtained from National Conference on Citizenship's websites ncoc.net, they plan to finish collecting data in the coming weeks and publish their findings.

2.1.6Social Media as Political Campaign Tools

According to Baran (2010) "The internet is characterized by freedom and self-governance, which are also the hallmarks of true democracy. It is no surprise then that computer technology is often trumpeted as the newest and best tool for increased democratic involvement and participation."

Since the 2000 U.S elections, more and more Americans have begun using the internet for receiving their news and political information. As a result, Politicians as a whole have begun using the internet more and more for campaigning. (Deluca 2009). However a certain Senator Barrack Obama took it to another level entirely in 2008. Senator Obama was aspiring to accomplish what had never been achieved before in U.S politics---someone from a minority race (Afro-Americans, Hispanics, Jews,) becoming the President of the United States of America. In order to stand a chance at all Sen. Obama had to find a way to reach out to a critical segment of the electorates that were hitherto "unreachable" - --youths and minorities. He found the 'bridge' in the form of social media. Being internet -savvy, he put his skills to good use by opening and operating a Facebook account My Space account, Twitter account. He also uploaded speeches on You Tube and created a website mybarackobama.com which he used for mobilizing supporters and campaigning.

Obama's utilization of social media for campaigning proved to be very popular not only among the youth, grassroots and minorities but also among the majority of Whites in America. According to Twitaholic.com Obama has about 9 million followers on Twitter, while he has got about 22 million 'friends" on Facebook. He is credited as having 'cultivated' the largest number of volunteers and also setting a new record of largest campaign donations in the history of D.S politics.

The 2008 D.S presidential election also witnessed an unprecedented mass participation of youths and minorities group in the electoral process which eventually led to the epoch making victory of internet savvy Sen. Obama over his internet-deficient rival Sen. John McCain .

As Deluca (2009) noted "the Obama campaign's usage of the internet and blogosphere has been a resounding success. Without the internet support, other well-known and more powerful opponents within both his own party and the Republican Party would have certainly left Obama in the dust."

Back home in Nigeria, politicians, including Ex-President Good luck Jonathan, have joined the social media bandwagon for political purposes. As if seemingly taking a cue from President Obama's successful use of the internet to win his election, Ex-President Jonathan also made aggressive use of social media to connect with millions of electorates on both Facebook and Twitter. It would be recalled that Ex-President Jonathan finally declared his intention to run for the post of Presidency in the 2011 presidential election on Facebook----three days before formally announcing at a rally. He has about 590, 190 followers on Facebook as at 14th of July.

He also tweet updates and reactions on his Twitter profile--- JGoodLucktweets---to his 16,486 followers as at 14th of July. Ex-President Jonathan’s utilization of social media proved to be a hit with youths in particular, and the populace in general. Igbinidu (2011) notes :

The increasing penetration of internet and telephone technology has culminated in an embrace of social media platforms by the Nigerian electorates, especially the youth who are increasingly becoming very vibrant and technology savior-faire. To connect with this target group, Nigeria politicians had no choice but to leverage on the media platform through which they could breached easily. President Goodluck Jonathan of Nigeria joined Facebook about 10 months ago, and was able to attract over 100, 000 fans in less than 20 days. At present, he has over 500, 000 fans on the social networking site. His current Facebook fan base number places him second only to that of United States, President Obama among other world Presidents on Facebook.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

According to Brooks (1970) as cited by Ohaja (2003) "knowledge does not exist in a vacuum. In every discipline there is a body of theories that provides the explanation for observable phenomena in that field." This study draws its theoretical framework from the following theories:

Agenda-Setting Theory

The Agenda-setting theory propounded by Maxwell Mc Combs and Donald Shaw states that the media sets the agenda for public discourse by determining which events/issues are put in the front burner at any given time. The media determine which issues are regarded as important or not for the populace. As Ben Cohen (1963) once stated "The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about".

It is no coincidence that most times, issues/topics being discussed in offices, markets, schools and other public places are news headlines, commentaries, editorials and other editorial matters carried by the mass media that morning. This study shall .examine if the social media Facebook and Twitter are veritable tools that can be used to set agenda for Nigerian youths, especially as regards awakening their political consciousness for them to participate in the electoral process.

Diffusion of Innovations Theory

According to Rogers (1995): 'Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over a period of time among the members of a social system. An innovation is an idea, practice or object that is perceived to be new by an individual or other unit of adoption. Communication is a process in which participants create and share information with one another to reach a mutual understanding'.

The diffusion of innovations theory centers on how an idea/practice/opinion disseminated to a given set of people may be adopted or rejected due to several factors. Rogers (ibid) posited "Diffusion of innovation theory predicts that media as well as interpersonal contacts provide information and influence opinion judgment." This leads to the related Two-Step flow theory which describes how some people with exposure to media message or information relay same to other people who have less exposure to the mass media. It was observed that the people exposed to the media messages (known as opinion leaders) were not only relaying the information to their "followers" but were also shaping and interpreting such information.

In this study's context electoral participation campaign messages IS diffused by say, National Orientation agency (NOA), through Facebook/Twitter. Youths of eligible age who see this message may then relay such messages to their friends, colleagues, neighbours, parents, etc. who may not have Facebook/Twitter accounts.