GOVERNMENT STRATEGIES AND MANAGEMENT OF SECURITY CHALLENGES IN NIGERIA

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:

• Conceptual Framework
• Theoretical Framework
• Empirical framework

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Nigeria and Security Challenges

Nigeria is facing security crisis because of inadequate, misplaced and misguided security agenda. Every country exists to give security to all human all human beings living in the county. Some of the security challenges facing Nigeria are food, finance, transport, health care, personal and national security issues. We also witness political and tribal/ethnic crises, political assassinations and kidnapping/abduction in different parts of the country. There are cases of armed robbery here and there, human trafficking, environmental degradation and separatist agitations of the Niger Delta, desertification challenge in some parts of the Northern Nigeria, erosion problems in the Southern Eastern, Nigeria. Annual floods in urban centres in Nigeria, to mention but a few. It seems we have limited issues of limited issues of security to militarization or national security alone. Crises erupted from Nigerian systems; Majority of Nigerians seem to lack access to pipe borne water, health care facilities, electricity, good transport system, food, affordable and qualitative education. Lack of these (the aforementioned) could have given rise to some pervasive ethnic-religious crises and terrorism in the country. The Fulani herdsmen in most cases settled in fertile areas to rear their cattle and when the migration continued to be dictated by economic and socio-political factors, increase trends of conflicts between the herders and their host communities (farmers escalated. Many Nigerians lost their lives, properties/ farmlands or crops every year to Fulani herders. The conflicts between Fulani herdsmen and farmers came into existence as a result of encroachment of farmlands by the Fulani herders (Ajibefun, 2017). Furthermore, the killings recorded by Fulani herdsmen and farmers clash has rampaged most communities displacing them of their farmlands and loss of their major source of livelihood. This is becoming unbearable with Fulani herdsmen always having their ways leaving the farmers at their mercy. Herdsmen attribute the roots of the crisis to religious differences resulting in the killing of their cows while the farmers see the herdsmen as a threat to their crops and agricultural produce since the herdsmen allow their cows to feed on the farmer’s crops (Ajibefun, 2017). The deadly crisis between herdsmen and crop farmers have become one of the major insecurity problems in Nigeria. It was stressed that it is second to Boko Haram imperil (Okoro, 2018). The bloody attacks and counter attacks have created social and relational implications and economic adverse effects. According to Olakiitan (2016), the failure of government to address the situation of herdsmen attacks decisively has several implications for Nigeria. The fact that herdsmen now carry sophisticated ammunition with which they kill and main perceived opponents at will constitutes graves danger to national security. This is because security personnel including the police have not been able to withstand weapon-wielding herdsmen’s boldness and firepower. Based on Okoro (2018) submission, the herdsmen have sacked whole communities, abducted elder statesmen, burnt churches, killed church priests and other worshipers, killed police officers, raped, looted and perpetrated heinous crimes while the government has done less to arrest the situation, which is a serious threat to national security and national development. Farmer’s displacement from the affected communities has drastically reduced agricultural production in Nigeria. This has been amply demonstrated by relative shortage of farm produce in the rural and urban market of central Nigeria (Chukwuma, 2016). The socio-economic implications of the Fulani herdsmen are likened to the end consequences of Boko Haram insurgents because of its emergence terrorism activities. The Fulani herdsmen have adversely affected the economy of Nigeria generally (Abdullahi, 2019). Every Sector of the economy is disrupted in one way or the other by the continued violence and insecurity in the country. Dauda (2019) stressed that the gains in the agricultural sector of the economy, especially in the area of food production, may suffer a serious setback as a result of the negative effect of the activities on farmers in area where Fulani herdsmen crises is pervasive. Socio-economic life in those states is usually grounded to a halt as people could not freely go about their farming and socio-economic activities for fear of being killed. Crisis is inevitable as long as we live together, especially in a multi-ethnic, cultural and religious community life Nigeria. However, violence leaves us with various form of retardation and underdevelopment resulting from the destruction of lives, farmland and property. The crises has had devastating effects on intergroup relationship in Nigeria. Olukunle (2018) stressed that crisis is an event that lead to an unstable and dangerous situation affecting an individual, group, community, or whole society. Crisis also refers to an unexpected unplanned situation or rather threat that suddenly dawns upon an area out of nowhere. It means an event that threatens the stability of a society or country. Titilope (2016) opined that crises is any event that may lead to an individual, group, community, or whole society. It is deemed to be negative changes in the security, economic, political, societal, or environmental affairs, especially when they occur abruptly, with little or no warning. Environmental conflict is conflicts caused by unfavourable environmental factors such as; degradation, scarcity, resources, demands and so on. Environmental scarcity occurs as a result of degradation and pressure on renewable and non-renewable natural resources which is very common in developing countries. It is due to inadequate availability of natural resources like water, arable lands, oil etc. This limited availability of resources push people living in such areas to leave in order to have access to resources (Agboola, 2020). Nigeria far north is avid and semi-avid, with a long dry season from October to May and low rainfall (600 to 900mm) from June to September. The national meteorological Agency reported that over the preceding 30 years the annual rainy season dropped from an average of 150 to 120 days. In the last six decades, over 350,00sq km of the already arid region turned to desert or desert- like conditions, a phenomenon progressing southward at the rate of 0.6km per year. In Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Jigawa, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, Yobe and Zamfara states, estimates suggest than 50-75 percent of the land area is becoming desert. These environmental changes have wrecked agriculture and human livelihoods, forcing millions of pastoralist and others to migrate south, in search of productive land. Migration initially was seasonal, with herders spending December to May in the central zone before returning north. Over the last two decades, however, as available pastures shrank in the far north, herders have been staying in the central zone longer-from December to June or June or July. More recently, some have chosen to graze their herds there permanently. This has triggered increasing disputes over land and water use with central Nigeria’s growing populations of sedentary crop farmers (Agboola, 2020). Herders’ attacks on farming communities have spawned dangerous political, economic and religious conspiracy. One is that the attacks are part of a longer- term Fulani plot to displace indigenous populations and seize their lands. Among Christian communities herders attacks are widely seen as a subtle form of Jihad. In March 2016, the prelate of the Methodist Church of Nigeria Dr Samuel Uche, said: “We are aware there is a game plan to Islamize Nigeria, and they are using the Fulani herdsmen to initiate it” In the south east, Biafra separatist groups describe the attacks as part of a northern plot to over when in the peoples of the south and forcefully convert them to Islam. Some southerner accuse President Buhari of deliberately failing to stop herders aggression, pointing to his pastoral Fulani background and his position as life patron of the cattle breaders’ association (MACBAN) to buttress their charges. Though, these charges are not supported by any solid evidence, but they are aggravating interfaith distrust and undermining the country’s fragile unity. In his own opinion, Richards (2019) affirm that serious attacks being perpetrated by arm bandit makes people took to arms either to defend themselves or a form of reprisal attack. This in turn will eventually be a breakdown of law and order, prevailing anarchy. The sounds of arms in the process of attack, the spilling of blood, burning of houses and farmlands during a violent conflict and host of others are all threat to a nation. (Akanji, Badmus and Kolade, 2017). For safety, people leave such environment to a well secured environment which is also another threat to the new environment due to its over population and also the shortage of food, water and shelter. Recurring violence between herdsmen and farmers, as well as related cattle theft and banditry in many states in Nigeria posed serious threats to peace and security. Although, the crisis is increasingly describe in religious terms, completing claims to land and other resources are at its cores. Glesitch (2010) identifies some factors that may constitute comprehensive motion of security to be either: 

Political security: Freedom from domination and other arbitrary government. 

Economic and social security: Freedom from poverty and wants. 

Cultural security: Freedom from ethnic and religious domination.  Environmental Security: Freedom from environmental destruction and resources security.

Food Security: Access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active healthy life. It seems these challenges have grown higher than what they were some years back. Yet security is vital to Nigeria’s cohesion, peace and sustainable development. It seems Nigeria cannot boast that she has provided her citizen with all the above securities. With the lingering challenges and the inability of the security apparatus of the government to guarantee safety and security in the country, the question that borders everyone in Nigeria today is that “can there be security? Is security of lives and properties achievable?. Apparently, the security situation in Nigeria appears or at least have remained unsurmountable and many people have argued that government at all levels has not done enough by not confronting the situation head on and dealing with it decisively, others have argued that the situation has a political undertone or inclination calculated to serve the interest of certain political gods who have been dissatisfied and disgruntled about the political manifestations in the country.

Some Root Causes of Security Challenges in Nigeria

However, the causes of security threats in Nigeria are many, Catholic Laity Connial of Nigeria (CLCN, 2019) identifies the followings as root causes of insecurity:

1. Moral Quandry: Some of these prevailing moral issues of diversified native and consequences include; corruption of different types and standards, inordinate desire to acquire wealth, debauchery which is made incredibly present in suffocating marital infidelity haggling sexual relations among teens sex trivialization in the institutions of higher learning and marriage among the people of some gender (Gay).
2. Breakdown of our Cherished Cultural Values. Cultural values link the community with their ancestors and with God. The value of the sacredness of life helps to enshew all attitude contrary to the promotion of human life while the value of communication stands against all attitudes that tends to promote excessive individualism and despotism. Both values help to create a humane community where other values, which are antidotes to moral crises are cultivated.
3. Injustices and faulty Justice System. Our legal and justice are so faulty that the rule of laws have become the rule of men. Most of our laws are archaic and moribund. Some are prescriptions made by superiors for binding on injeriors. There exist some “untouchables”, cabals who are above the laws of this land. They can neither be arrested nor prosecuted. The worship of the untouchables of the land is a juxtaposition that reveals an aspect of security challenges in Nigeria. Such example is the refusal of the former Head of State, General Ibrahim Babangida who repeatedly defy summons to appear before Justice Oputa panel to answer allegations of human right abuses. Big shots in the country have been linked with sponsorship of Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria where thousands of lives have been lost and thousands displaced, yet the untouchable are still parading the streets unscrathed. James Ibori was innocent at home but guilty abroad, Nigeria law is meant for only the poor (Sat. Punch 04/04/2021).
4. Religious Intolerance and Ethnic Conflict. Effiong C. (2019) also identifies the following factors as religious intolerance and ethnic conflicts. 

• Devetion of one’s religion. 
• Value conflict. 
• Psychological jealousy. 
• Unregulated competition. 
• Alibi of other conflicts
• Growing pains

This aforementioned points have independently or in combination been causal elements influencing action throughout history of security challenges emanating from religious intolerance. It could be over zealousness to one’s religion, competition for scarce goods, attitude to certain individuals of a religious

belief that could provoke psychological jealousy which in turn leads to some kind of violence. It could be linked to ostensibly cultural differences that spill over into political conflict, reducing ends to economics.

1. Poverty/Unemployment/Poor Remuneration Effiong (2019) says Nigeria is faced with acute poverty, unemployment saga as well as poor remuneration for workers. Retired civil/public servants in the country are equally crying of ill prepared pension schemes and lack of welfare plans. The unemployed youth do fund solace in a devil’s workshop to commit crimes and pose security challenges while the under paid employees resort to official corruptions and dwindled productivity. Retires resort to complaints and attacked to the government.
2. Unchecked inflow of Lethal Weapons. This is proliferation of light weapons. Some politicians who procure lethal weapons for unemployed youths to use in guarding them to succeed in campaigns and elections did not recover such weapons from the youths. They now use those weapons to form cult groups or armed robbery and kidnapping for ransom. The end result is increase in violent crimes and security challenges in our nation.
3. The Menace of Fake and Illicit Drugs: Our young people have become drug addicts in the increase and stay under such influence to commit heinous crimes. Even though most of the drugs are taken for man’s well being, but unfortunately, they have been abused in various ways.
4. Greed and Self Centerdness. Like the state of nature of Thomas Hobbes everybody simply pursues the satisfaction of his/her self-interest. There is no other rule of action than self-interest and its satisfaction. But in the course of pursuing the satisfaction of self interest, men have come into conflicts, quarreled and fought with one another-an aspect of security challenge in the country.
5. Neglect of God and His Ordinances: In pursuing the desires of the human nature, man have deviated from the norms of the spirit. These are two enemies (Gal. 5 vs 16-26). Insecurity becomes imminent because human nature shows itself in immoral, filting and indecent actions (Isa. 65 vs 1-8). There are serious signs of concern of Nation monching dangerously towards a state of emergency anarchy or doom. It is very clear that Nigeria in recent times has witnessed all unprecedented threat level of insecurity. This has made national security threat to be a major issue in Nigeria. Eme, Nwachukwu & Olise (2017) identifies the following as part of the causes of security threats in Nigeria. These include, youth unemployment, the culture of get rich-quick based on greed, proliferation of small arms and light weapons as well as inadequate policing of our borders and maritime environment. Also, Achumba; Ighomereho & Akpor-Robaro (2013) states the causes of security challenges in Nigeria to include: lack of institutional capacity resulting in government failure, pervasive material inequalities and unfairness, ethno-religious conflicts, conflict of perceptions between the public and government, weak security system, loss of socio-cultural and communal value system. He further mentioned these as immediate and proximate factors which caused security threats in Nigeria: Porous boorders, rural/urban drift, social irresponsibility of companies, unemployment/ poverty, terrorism and insecurity of business environment.

Crisis Transition

According to (Sola, 2007) security issues in Nigeria until recently were mainly interregional differences and were, therefore, easier to control. When conflict within regions arises the state government is supposed to intervene and put an end to the crisis, but when the state government is unable to curb the growing conflict, the federal government declares a state of emergency and deploys military personnel to the affected region(s) to restore peace and order to the state, this instrument is known as martial law. This means that, during this period civilian governments’ activities are placed on hold and replaced by military officials that then performs some or in some cases the entire role of the government of that region. In the past, there have been call for a state of emergency, first of which since the new democratic regime was declared by the then President of the country Olusegun Obasanjo, on the 18th of May 2004. This took place after mass religious killings in Plateau State. Also, joining the league of States in recent times under the Martial law practice contained in the 1999 constitution section 305 due to the growing mass killings is Borno, Adamawa and Yobe state. Although regional crisis is a crucial issue in Nigeria, the 2010 October 1st Bombing near the Eagle square of the capital city Abuja, marked the first awareness to national security threat. This bombing was significant because it took place on a day the Country marks her independence, just a few minutes away from the celebration venue (Oluduro & Olubisi F., 2012).

Security Measures

When it comes to security Nigeria is lagging behind, human security goes beyond military protection from external attack. According to the (UNDP, 1994) report, there are seven factors of security deemed as constituting the concept of human security. This includes food security, health security, political security, community security, personal security, economic security and environmental security. One cannot dispute that the above listed factors are real issues of concern in the country today as it lacks sufficient means to cater for people in the country. To tackle this matter, the OSIWA outlines four necessary steps:

1. For security to be maintained the Nigerian government should seek necessary assistance in reviewing the current security policies, to ensure continuous peace and stability, this means that, the country should take on long term policies designed to handle micro security and counter-terrorism, these policies should include the involvement of the different sectors with a sense of accountability in the security process.
2. As part of the cause of contemporary security issues revolves around religious activities, funding should be made available to independent bodies to intercede during religious unrest, and also create platforms to foster peaceful coexistence among the religious groups.
3. Also, vital to security of any country is transparency of the government in power; this is pertinent to the Nigerian government particularly in the management of the oil sector and distribution of wealth.
4. Lastly, the need to set up a functional Human Rights commission to handle cases of injustice and mistreatment (OSIWA, 2012). In the OSIWA briefing, the cause of security issues is due to the misplaced priorities and corruption practices of the serving government to include the legislative and judicial arms of government. The implication of this has resulted to:
5. Lack of confidence in the government by the people,
6. Cause of individuals and groups taking justice into their own hands,
7. Poverty,
8. An Economic meltdown,
9. Unemployment,
10. Lack of social and health amenities,
11. Violence and other acts of terrorism,
12. Increase in crime rate.

The report proposes that, for change to occur, non-governmental bodies should be able to come-up with, implementable processes to control government excesses and the abuse of power. Also, it calls the attention of the international community, to provide essential training and expert advice to manage these challenges (OSIWA, 2012).

Terrorism: a Security Challenge Of The 21st Century

The 9/11 attack on the US World Trade Centre created a new awareness on the reality of terrorism. This new terrorism changes the meaning of security in the twenty first century. However, some still respond to the activities of the Al Qaeda and other terrorist groups as an act of freedom fighting; this school of thought makes the theory of terrorism difficult to define (J. Richards)1 . Literatures such as (Horgan, 2003), (Horgan, 2008), (Reich, 1998) argues causes of terrorism using several psychological approaches, as opposed to the political reason for terrorist attacks defined in a number of literatures. Terrorism as described by the UK Security Service is “The use or threat of action designed to influence the government or an international governmental organisation or to intimidate the public, or a section of the public; made for the purposes of advancing a political, religious, racial or ideological cause” (MI5- The Security Service, 2013). Neumann and smith also defined terrorism based on the form of attacked associated with terrorist bombings, they defined terrorism as a “deliberate creation of a sense of fear, usually by the use or threat of use of symbolic acts of physical violence, to influence the political behaviour of a given target group” (Neumann & Michael, 2007). This study although not directly related to the paper is in line with understanding new terrorism. The Al Qaeda terrorist group is at the forefront of global terrorist threats, this is a notorious Islamic sect known for symbolic bombings around the world. The Al Qaeda is just one of the listed terrorist groups around the world. According to the U.S Department of State, Bureau of Counterterrorism 2012 findings, there are fifty one terrorist groups gathered from October1997- March 2013 listing (U.S Dept of State)2 . It appears that a defining feature of a lot of these groups is that many of these groups are religion orientated but are, however, enthusiastic mostly about different things, and also structured in different modes of implementation. Nevertheless, a lot of these groups are interlinked with one another. The Boko Haram group in Nigeria is sometimes referred to as a subgroup of the Al Qaeda.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The Elite Theory

Elite theory emerged from the works of Pareto (1963) and Mosca (1939) as a reaction to Karl Marx on power and state and Abraham Lincoln on democracy (Epstein, 2011). Elite theory rests on the premises that man society is divided into two major groups i.e. “the ruler” and “the ruled‟. The former represents the minority while the latter constitute the majority, but the minority manipulation power which enable them to misappropriate the resources of the state to the detriment of the ruled. Pareto (1963) and Mosca (1939) largely attributed the ability of the elites to manipulate power to the internal organization of the elite class, and that it permits them to form a united and unified minority against the masses who are usually uncoordinated and easily manipulated. (Pareto, 1963) also believes that characteristics of subtlety and crookedness single the elite class out as superiors. The structure of the elite is static, but individuals in the group change. When the old members pass on or retire, new members are recruited to the group. However, it should be noted that such persons are usually recruited from the old members jurisdiction. Anyone recruited from outside the group is usually recommended by members and he or she must subscribe to the dictates of the group before his or her induction can be carried out so as to retain the influence and the power of domination of the group.

Applying Elite Theory to Insecurity

The elite theory has some explanation on the manipulation of power which has generated conflicts across Nigeria in both military and political regimes. The genesis of the Nigerian civil war and the annulment of the June 12, 2003 presidential election could be traced to such manipulations while scholars such as [98-99] have connected other democratization process in the country with political violence. The manipulation of the political power has also granted the elite class an unlimited access to misappropriate the funds meant for national development to the detriment of the ruled. This is an indication of dysfunctional leadership responsible for the failure of the economic, education, social control, technology, family institutions etc. that correlate violent and nonviolent conflicts with negative implications on national development. Since Nigeria‟s political independence in 1960, the elite class has produced leaders without conviction, patriotism and vision (Bakoji, 2006).

These leaders according to Bariledum and Serebe (2013) have “assumed the dimension that is unusual of realistic functions in development context”. Leadership is an essential requirement of any society, but the type of leadership determines her level of development. Hence, a nation with poor leadership, like Nigeria, no matter her level of natural endowments has been associated with underdevelopment in previous studies (Achumba et al., 2013; Bakoji, 2006; Ben-David, 1973). Development could be regarded as a function of how natural and human resources can be manipulated by the concerted efforts of the „rulers‟ and the „ruled‟ to the advantage of their country but this effort is seriously lacking (Cervallati and Sunde, 2011). Thus, the political institution seems to have malfunctioned with negative implications on other institutions such as, economic, education, social control, etc. Contrary to Karl Marx on economic structure determining superstructure therefore, the political institution seems to have negatively influenced the superstructure in Nigeria, considering the manipulation of political power which enable the elites to loot the funds meant for national development to its advantage and disadvantage of the masses. The foregoing corroborates (Tomoloju, 2007) who contends that “We fight, and sometimes shed blood to achieve and retain political power because for us in Nigeria, the political kingdom has for too long been the gateway to the economic kingdom” (P. 50-51). However, both the economic and political determinism of the superstructure gears towards the exploitation of the masses. The capitalists and the elites are more or less in the same camp with the same interest or focus (exploitation of the masses).

Due to poor leadership, the economic institution cannot function at optimal level to afford employment for many graduates, good remunerations and conditions of service for the employed in the public sector while the private sector is characterized by exploitation. Also, the problem of leadership seems to be causing the malfunctioning of the educational institutions hence cases of industrial action, violent demonstration of students etc. in various campuses. The social control unit is ineffective because of corruption and poor welfare of the security personnel (Achumba et al., 2013). Most of these officers are ill-equipped, poorly trained, remunerated, educated and motivated. Also, most of the literature on ethnic violence shows that it is often motivated for economic and political reasons (Obasanjo, 2002). Moreover, most violent conflicts associated with differences in race, religion, culture, language are traceable to the perceived inequality in the circulation of economic, political and social resources by the elite class (Harris and Reilly, 1998, cited in (Obasanjo, 2002).

Social Structure and Anomie Theory

The social structure and anomie is a contemporary theory of Halliru (2012) in social sciences that illustrates the active roles of deviant behaviour in criminality. Merton focuses mainly on the “broad patterns of norm-violating behavior rather than in the behavior of individual deviants” (p. 132), using cultural goals, institutional norms and social structures of the society. Merton analyzes how people situated in certain segments of the society are predisposed to environmental pressures and how it could encourage deviant behaviours. According the thinking of Merton, all sections of the society are expected to struggle for the cultural goal of physical accomplishment which includes money and the impressive possessions it can afford within its institution or structure. Nevertheless, the society that places high emphasis on cultural environment for success attainment and social ascent for all its members ought to make adequate provisions for their accomplishments. Quite unfortunately, society emphasizes less on the means for members of the society to attain this goal and it predisposes them to criminality. Thus, the serious inconsistency between cultural goals and structural certainties does not only destabilizes social support for the established norms but also for the promotion of defilements of those norms (Merton, 1957). When persons are choked in their pursuit of economic success in the society, they are forced to acclimatize in deviant ways to this exasperating environmental condition. How people adjust to the environmental burdens is therefore the vital contribution to the anomie tradition. This is illustrated in an analytical typology of how individuals adjust to the discrepancy between culture and social structure in the society.

The Theory of Relative Deprivation

Theory Relative deprivation theory is a middle range contemporary theory in social sciences that is undistinguishably linked to poverty and social segregation. The theory date back to ancient Greece and it is largely associated with (Gurr, 1970). Thus, drawing inspiration from the principle of Aristotle that revolution is driven by a relative sense or feeling of inequality rather than an absolute measure, (Gurr, 1970) contends that instead of a total standard of deficiency, a breach between projected and accomplished wellbeing result in cooperative dissatisfaction. Therefore, the main root of human capacity for violence appears to be the frustration-aggression mechanism; the anger brought by frustration is an inspiring force that positions men to belligerence, regardless of its instrumentalities. The relative deprivation is the term employed to signify the strain or tension that emerges from a disagreement between the “ought” and the “is” of collective value satisfaction which prompts humanity to violence. Giving credence to this theory Runciman (1966) cited in Obah-Akpowoghaha (2013) defines the prerequisite of “relative” deprivation as: (where individual A feels deprived of object X): individual A does not have X; individual A wants to have X; individual A knows of other persons who have X; individual A believes obtaining X is realistic.

2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW

Alomoni(2018) focused on Critical analysis of root causes of security challenges in Nigeria and solutions. Insecurity which has come in different forms as Boko Haram, Fulani herdsmen, armed banditry and kidnapping are bruising more fears to the life of the common people. This is compounded by hunger, unemployment infrastructures and other vices too numerous to mention. The root cause of security challenges is crime which is used to be decided by people because it is opposed to both natural and divine laws. The finding shows that Political security, Freedom from domination and other arbitrary government has effect on Economic and social security, freedom from poverty and wants, cultural security, Freedom from ethnic and religious domination, Environmental Security, freedom from environmental destruction and resources security on the causes, economics effects and impact of Fulani herdsmen and Farmers crisis on national development in Nigeria. It was recommended that Federal government should engage peace and conflict resolution experts in dealing with issues concerning Fulani herdsmen and Farmers crises and that ranching method of cattle rearing location across the country while the herdsmen should be given needed training for effective and efficient management of the ranching.

Osborn(2017) examine insecurity situation in Nigeria and its implications for business investment, operations and sustainable development. The evaluation of the level and dimension of insecurity which was based on secondary data and observations among authors in different places, zones and walks of life as expressed in their comments, as well as, on concrete evidences of insecurity incidence in different parts of Nigeria, indicated that the insecurity challenge in the country is enormous and complex and would continue to be, if the situation remains unabated. We therefore emphasized the need to evolve a safe business environment that allows for effective business activities and a sustainable development process. The security management models recommended to achieve this, are aimed at combating the creators and perpetuators of situations of insecurity, and simultaneously addressing and removing the sources of dissatisfaction and discontentment which spur security breaches and the involvement of all stakeholders both in public and private capacity-government, business organizations, civil society, religious groups, communities and individuals- to supply resources, expertise and information that are required to ensure a safe environment.