EMPLOYEES’ PERCEPTION ON MOTIVATION MECHANISM IN NIGERIA PUBLIC SERVICE

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in two sub-headings:

 Conceptual Framework

 Chapter Summary

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

MOTIVATION

Motivation has different meaning or definition from different authoritative and scholars. But whatever angle it is looked at some authorities seems to share view or opinion on this subject matter, motivation which other authorities vary.

First, McMahon and McMahon (1986:7) see motivation as a biological state that energizer raises the organization to use bodily process and movement to attain a good alter analysis of the situation while pursuing the goals and adjust sensation and bodily process as necessary while seeking this goal.

The definition of motivation had both physiological as well as psychological trend. In other words, motivation is seen from both in the inside and outside of man and in other to get the best out of any worker, be it typist, messengers, labourers, cleaners, accounts, clerk to mention but a few, there is need to motivate him/her in one way or other to achieve the organization goal. Emphatically an employee must be motivated to carry out duties assigned to him/her to the extent that doing so also helps to satisfy his/her personal needs.

This motivation contributes to the accomplishment of the organization goals. Also, an individual engages in and sustains behavior when he finds it rewarding to do so that is when the behavior accomplished on objective which satisfies ones need.

Another authority, Ejiofor (1989:12) has it that motivation is the process of influencing subordinate or followers to work for a course desired by the motivator or leader. This particular definition varies from the previous one of McMahon and McMahon. The reason for this variance being divergent views that exists at the exact meaning of motivation, the process of influencing subordinate or followers to work for a course desired by the motivator achievement of his personal goals. He therefore becomes easier to manage like the McGregor theory man. He now begins to derive job satisfaction from working and from achieving results.

Motivation however is multi dimensional when one tries to examine what motivate people to work. In a work situation, the following factors could inspire and sustain moral to work good salaries, job securities, good career prospects, good work environment, realization of self esteem, indicate, subsidized meals, and transport, good retirement benefit etc, motivational factor as Abraham Maslow observed could be hierarchical and would be relevant at different stage of life and have individual difference in the strength of each need.

Ohiri (1990:6) Businesses further, even where wags are paid, it must be competitive, otherwise the worker would leave that employment for lucrative job.

This is in line with equity theory of motivation which states that people with the same qualification and experience who work in similar environment must be equally, otherwise inequality will set in. So worker in the banking and industries have similar wage package.

From all indications, it is very glaring and obvious to the reader that motivation is derived from physiological and psychology condition, every authority and definition of the subject matter pints to the combination of both as the genesis and off sort of motivation.

A worker (staff worker) if well motivated is known to be in good state of mind with himself, his boss, supervisors, subordinate and even his job, hence, job efficiency is properly attained and profit maximized. In fact, his moral to the work is boosted and the goals of the organization realized and achieved as a result of this. In other words if a worker is not properly motivated as job will be done haphazardly viz-a-viz expected organization goals sometime, this can led to labour turnover that is the rate which workers are leaving the organization to work in another organization and or absence rate that is the rate which workers are living the organization to work in other organization and or absence rate that is the of truancy.

Secondly, the national economy is boosted in the course of motivation workers for enhanced performance.

Finally, the immediate family are satisfied as well from the incentive given to them enhance their performance in the organization, thus saving one and the entire nation from society vices.

Intrinsic motivation

refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure. Intrinsic motivation has been studied by social and educational psychologists since the early 1970s. Research has found that it is usually associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment by students. Explanations of intrinsic motivation have been given in the context of Fritz Heider's attribution theory, Bandura's work on self-efficacy, and Deci and Ryan's cognitive evaluation theory (see self-determination theory). Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

• attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control e.g. the amount of effort they put in,

• believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals i.e. the results are not determined by luck

• are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good grades.

Advantages:

Intrinsic motivation can be long-lasting and self-sustaining. Efforts to build this kind of motivation are also typically efforts at promoting student learning. Such efforts often focus on the subject rather than rewards or punishments.

Disadvantages:

Efforts at fostering intrinsic motivation can be slow to affect behavior and can require special and lengthy preparation. Students are individuals, so a variety of approaches may be needed to motivate different students. It is often helpful to know what interests one's students in order to connect these interests with the subject matter. This requires getting to know one's students. Also, it helps if the instructor is interested in the subject.

Extrinsic motivation

comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards like money and grades, coercion and threat of punishment. Competition is in general extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A crowd cheering on the individual and trophies are also extrinsic incentives. Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to over justification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition and to children who received no extrinsic reward. Self-determination theory proposes that extrinsic motivation can be internalised by the individual if the task fits with their values and beliefs and therefore helps to fulfill their basic psychological needs.

Advantages:

Allows individuals to become easily motivated and work towards a goal.

Disadvantages:

Motivation will only last as long as the external rewards are satisfying

Self-control

The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset of emotional intelligence; a person may be highly intelligent according to a more conservative definition (as measured by many intelligence tests), yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to certain tasks. Yale School of Management professor Victor Vroom's "expectancy theory" provides an account of when people will decide whether to exert self control to pursue a particular goal. Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others. By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the example of training animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat motivates the animals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is removed from the process.

Practical applications

The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many different approaches of motivation training, but many of these are considered pseudoscientific by critics. To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many people lack motivation.

Employee motivation

"If one wishes to create a highly valid theory, which is also constructed with the purpose of enhanced usefulness in practice in mind, it would be best to look to motivation theories ... for an appropriate model" (Miner, 2003, p. 29). Employee motivation, i.e. methods for motivating employees, is an intrinsic and internal drive to put forth the necessary effort and action towards work-related activities. It has been broadly defined as the "psychological forces that determine the direction of a person's behavior in an organisation, a person's level of effort and a person's level of persistence".Motivation is the impulse that an individual has in a job or activity to reaching an end goal. There are multiple theories of how best to motive workers, but all agree that a well-motivated work force means a more productive work force. The design of an employee's job can have a significant effect on their job motivation. Job design includes designing jobs that create both a challenging and interesting task for the employee and is effective and efficient for getting the job done. The Job Characteristics Model (JCM), as designed by Hackman and Oldham attempts to use job design to improve employee intrinsic motivation. They show that any job can be described in terms of five key job characteristics:

Skill Variety - the degree to which the job requires the use of different skills and talents

Task Identity - the degree to which the job has contributed to a clearly identifiable larger project

Task Significance - the degree to which the job affects the lives or work of other people

Autonomy - the degree to which the employee has independence, freedom and discretion in carrying out the job

Task Feedback - the degree to which the employee is provided with clear, specific, detailed, actionable information about the effectiveness of his or her job performance

The JCM links the core job dimensions listed above to critical psychological states which results in increased employee intrinsic motivation. This forms the basis of this "employee growth-need strength." The core dimensions listed above can be combined into a single predictive index, called the Motivating Potential Score.

Education

Motivation is of particular interest to educational psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields. Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter. It can:

1. Direct behavior toward particular goals

2. Lead to increased effort and energy

3. Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities

4. Enhance cognitive processing

5. Determine what consequences are reinforcing

6. Lead to improved performance.

Business

At lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, such as physiological needs, money is a motivator, however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period (in accordance with Herzberg's two-factor model of motivation).

At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than money, as both Abraham Maslow's theory of motivation and Douglas McGregor's theory X and theory Y (pertaining to the theory of leadership) demonstrate. According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs. Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other needs are better motivators to staff. In Essentials of Organizational Behavior, Robbins and Judge examine recognition programs as motivators, and identify five principles that contribute to the success of an employee incentive program:

1. Recognition of employees' individual differences, and clear identification of behavior deemed worthy of recognition

2. Allowing employees to participate

3. Linking rewards to performance

4. Rewarding of nominators

5. Visibility of the recognition process

6. Modern organizations adopt non-monetary employee motivation methods rather than tying it with tangible rewards.

7. Provide a positive work environment

8. Encourage team contribution and rewards

9. Feedback

10. Give challenging roles

11. Empowering employees with training and independent thinking

12. This method makes employees feel they're a part of the organization and their reward is seeing it grow through their efforts

WORKERS MOTIVATION FACTORS

The key to the understanding of the human needs, Maslow (1984) identified the human needs which he classified into five categories as were explained earlier on, in order to motivate workers to put their maximum effects, it is essential that these various needs be satisfied as practicable. At this juncture, it becomes imperative to discuss the prominent or rather practical ways of motivating workers for enhanced performance.

WAGES AND SALARIES

Although analysis has been placed on the satisfaction of higher needs for the motivation of workers the basic needs have to satisfied first. It is a non-disputable fact that the immediate problem confronting a graduate of any discipline in Nigeria is how he will be able to get a job so that he can earn some money. Thus, Ibekwe (1984) to asserted that a school leaver in Nigeria want to job to earn some money to meet his/her food, shelter and clothing needs, the staff worker is no exception. When wages and salaries are given to workers (staff workers) whose immediate needs are physiological, they serve as motivation. This variable enhances his performance cum productivity aside lightly in any event.

Gellerman (1974) summed up that situation aptly by saying that the monetary importance is a myths is not to say that money is importance. Therefore, money can motivate. It can influence action and encourage extra efforts, creativity or any other kind of non-routine performance.

JOB ENRICHMENT

This is one of the best ways of motivation workers for enhanced performance. Drucker (1975) puts it succinctly when he assets that an organization need the best performance man is capable of and a man needs more the job that will provide the greatest scope for her abilities and talents, the best opportunity for growth and for superior performance. Job enrichment is quite different from job enlargement.

Herzberg (1954) advances the two as a solution to seeking morale and breaking the monetary of a job. Job enlargement means increasing the tasks involved without necessary increasing person’s power or authority. It is a horizontal loading while job enrichment has to do with increasing responsibilities as well as authority so that the workers can go head in carrying out his job without much instruction. It is otherwise known as vertical loading.

To a staff worker, enriching his job serves as motivator and his performance is enhanced is so doing, this is true because it creates an answer for him to exhibit the talents he possess for an instance, a worker who is given the opportunity to interview and supervise would be workers will strive to assess them well in order not to recruit the wrong persons. To him it is a challenge and to enhance his performance will be the watch words.

JOB SECURITY

To bring out the best performance from workers, the safety of their job must be effectively assured. Ibekwe (1984) put it thus to allow a workers security trade fraise, he must be assured of sound procedures established in organization for handing of relevance discipline and termination on that in all circumstances, he can expect that justice will be done.

With this assistance in mind, a staff worker goes about performing his duties as best as he can there is no fear of the boss alone having the power to terminate his services. The fear of insecurity stumpers in the absence of fear, staff worker is happy for the discipline and security of his job and this puts in his best performance the resultant effects is increased productivity.

PROMOTION

Staff workers would want to see a chance for the better in their place of work. A messenger would want to become senior messenger. A security man would want to be a security officer.

In explaining productivity as high motivator Ibekwe (1984) opines that promotion bring along with it not just more but esteem and a mark of recognition of the individual performance. Therefore, staff worker who are promoted has a new life put in them, their knowledge and skill becomes active and their over attitudes and outlook improves. They consequently strive hard to be effective and to achieve higher standards. The end result of all these are that their performance will be greatly enhanced and their organization enjoy greater productivity.

OBJECTIVE SETTING AND APPRAISAL

What is needed is an approach whereby a worker feels that he is operating within a framework that he can ascertain within that frame what was required of him, in this way he can determine of what extent he succeeded during a given period. Ibekwe (1984) states that a well structured appraisal makes for fairness and encourages mutual trust and confidence, thus creating a congenial atmosphere where the worker can do his work without fear or inhibition performance appraisal is a great motivator and encourages a staff worker to work heard in order to enhance performance. A worker who has done his job perfectly well and his boss tells him he has done a marvelous job would want to perform better than he did next time.

LEADERSHIP STYLE

Leadership style refers to the attitude of his immediate supervisor. The attitude of a staff workers supervisor may serve as a motivator or de-motivator workers are more likely to react favourably to the leadership of a manager who is result oriented recognized achievement and reward. Faoily Likert (1961) classified leadership style based on the extent of trust and confidence subordinate. At one end is the exploitative authoritative management style who lacks confidence and trust in the subordinates believes in excessive use of the rat threat and title or no latter interaction. At the other and is a participative group system that the much interaction among superior, individual and groups.

When the latter type of leadership style is adopted, a worker would see himself as part and parcel of decision making process and so participate actively and wiling in carrying out the decision. His performance is enhanced unlike when the exploitative authorities’ style is adopted.

Blake and Mouton (19780 confirm that relationship of trust and respect lead to accomplishment at committed level and with committed people. This is a common state in the organization’s purpose becomes the prime move, each worker putting in his best to ensure the achievement of goals.

TRAINING

It is a process used by any management to enhance the performance of its human resources, particularly the staff worker, and which in turn fields high productivity, management does the by sending it’s human resources to course relevant to their respective fields of involvement. By sending workers on training courses in other word retraining then enhanced their performance.

Ibekwe (1984) indentified the numerous training schemes to include induction training, on the job training apprenticeship, tutelage or understudy supervising training, management training and correspondence course.

When a staff worker is effectively exposed to any of these training schemes relevant to his field of endeavour, his chances of enhancing his performance is increased. Training service as a good motivation because each time a worker come back from such a training or course, he tries very hard to leave a work that he actually went for further studies. For instance in correspondence course, Ibekwe (1984) went further to state that they are advances in that are advantageous in that they sharpen the experience of the worker, nourish him with modern techniques and revitalize him for a better and more venture, some role in the organization the staff worker are not left out in the type of people Ibekwe (1984) explained above.

WORK ENVIRONMENT

When the work environment is conducive, it serves as a good motivation. It affects the performance of a worker positively or negatively accordingly. Quibble (1986) states that because employees performance of the environment unaware of the benefits of a pleasant environment.

There are different of environment, which include economic, social, physical and political environments. A worker performance is effectively enhanced each of them is conducive under social environment major experiment carried and with six men lends credence of the effects of conducive social environment to a workers, physical environment includes technology equipment climate, size of the office, degree of illumination even the pointing of the officer.

A worker who is provided with equipment that facilitates his job feels happy whenever he remembers to carry out his function. This happiness goes home with him after day’s work. No wonder Schultz (1975) states that day’s work, whenever a person is frustrated or dissatisfied is his job and then he is likely to be unhappy when he/she goes home at the end of the day. Therefore when a worker is satisfied with her work environment, his performance is enhanced.

EFFECT OF LACK OF MOTIVATION ON WORKERS

Non-provision of motivational techniques effects performance of worker immensely. This contributes to low productivity in organization. The effect can take the following ways duly motivated:

1.Low Productivity: Non provision is motivation techniques affect the performance of workers in the organization. And as a result of this, their productivity will be low, compared to one who is duly motivated. When this is the organization stands to lose as its goals will not be realized or achieved.

2.Reduce Morale: A worker will not be happy with his job and his employer if he is not rewarded accordingly. If reward is given to staff workers in other organization, he will be demoralized and his output will completely reduce.

3.Increase in Rate of Labour Turn-Over: If a worker is not motivated, or if the salary paid to him does not complete favourable with that of other organization. There is every tendency that he has to shout out for employment somewhere else where he can get a reward of services he renders to the organization, same is applicable to other organization, same is applicable to other people in other professional and levels.

4. Increase in Rate of Truancy: There is a glaring rate of truancy of employees in an organization where employees of labour fail to motivate their employees. As a result of this work is left undone as workers exhibit non-chalant attitude to it work.

Public Service Motivation and Job Performance

Job performance is perhaps the most central concept in public administration research (Andersen et al., 2016). There are many incentives that drive people to perform public services, but it is important to identify what incentives need to be addressed to make people more effective (Brewer et al., 2000; Brewer 2008; Ritz et al., 2016). According to Perry and Wise (1990), highly motivated public service employees seek employment in public services because they provide them with sufficient opportunities to engage with the public service and are highly performing in their service because they believe their work makes sense. Wright and Pandey (2008) further argue that public sector employees who have high public service incentives are expected to work harder, perform better in their duties precisely because the Organizations they work for, have the opportunity to offer services that they consider important and inherently satisfactory. According to Brewer (2008) and Dilulio (1994) a high commitment to public service can lead employees to work beyond their own interests and to do more than they are asked to do. In general, many studies (see: Naff and Grum, 1999; Brewer and Selden, 2000; Kim, 2005; Bright, 2007; Leisink and Steijn, 2009; Ritz, 2009; Vandenabeele, 2009; Andersen and Serritzlew, 2012; Bellé, 2013; Gould-Williams et al., 2015) claim that Organizations that are able to attract, socialize, and retain employees with higher levels of motivation for public service are expected to have higher levels of performance, precisely because their employees perform better, work harder and help each other.

Public Service Motivation and Job Satisfaction

A significant number of empirical research supports the view that the motivation for public service is closely linked to job satisfaction (Weiss 2002; Bright 2008; Steijn 2008; Wright and Pandey 2008). Job satisfaction can be seen as a consequence of the public service motivation in the public sector, as the situation of public sector job appears to be capable of meeting the needs of individuals willing to help others (Perry and Wise 1990; Pandey and Stazyk, 2008). The direct relationship between PSM and job satisfaction has been supported by, among others, in Australia by Taylor (2008), in Belgium by Vandenabeele (2009), in China by Liu et al. (2008), in Korea by Kim (2011) and in United States by Naff and Crum (1999). Perry and Wise (1990), Taylor (2008), as well as Kim (2012) and Breaugh et al. (2017) argue that people with high public service motivation are more satisfied with their work in the public sector and more committed to the organizations they serve, precisely because they work in roles that satisfy their social orientation.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The major theories of motivating behavior have come to us from researchers of Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, Fredrick Herzberg, David McClelland, and Vroom. There is also the contribution of Resins Likert in his human relation theory, before theories let us in the interim look into the classical theory.

FREDRICK TAYLOR

Known as the father of scientific management who is inseparably tied with the classical theory, was of the view that man unique in that it greatly increase the reward for high productivity. Thus, men were able to double their wages under the system. It will become clear the classical theory makes the assumption that money is best motivator, the power of money as a motivator has never been generally established, that is with full agreement. There are those who are not influenced by the power of naira those who have risen above its power. Taylor’s classical theory fails to specify other important consideration that affects individual motivation to work, by trooping to make money the simple solution.

THE NEED THEORY: ABRAHAM MASLOW

Most of us never reach the point when we no longer want more money. But these definitely comes a time when we begin to think that is much use to derive out of life, Abraham Maslow has effectively constructed continuum of human needs that motivate, which is popularly known the need hierarchy (see fig below) the need are:

THE NEED HIERARCHY

a. Physiological Needs: These are needs of the body for shelter, food, clothing water and sex which are of man’s strong drive towards self preservation.

b. Security Needs: The two types of security needs are rather concerned with the letter in our research, people want become economical secured against loss of income, cessation of employment and old age.

c. Social Needs: People need to feel they belong and accepted some important members of the groups and have same influence with other group members.

d. Self Actualization Needs: This is the needs to do what one is best suited for some people aspire to be politicians, leaders and legislators and are best suited for these, in terms of their skill and ability. Such factors as responsibility, a feeling of job importance individual importance and accomplishment are also included here.

For the purpose of this project research or study it may be convenient to combine physiological and security need into lower or economic foods. These can be basically satisfied though wages, the higher needs can only come reasonably well satisfied. To this effect, if an individual wage is so low that he cannot meet his physiological and security needs it is very likely that they will not be motivated by such incentives that satisfy social, esteem to self actualization needs. Thus, when a need is reasonably well satisfied, it becomes unimportant and the needs higher need becomes out goal (that a need has become unimportant does not course mean that it has been completely abandoned, that is causes to be a motivator, for in reality and no need is very completely satisfied.

For instance, one people feel that the wages they are receiving are consistent with and reasonable for the type of work they are doing and feel secured about continuity to receive them. Further attempts to motivate them to higher level performance on the basis of wages alone will almost fail because such higher people are already having in view such higher needs as social esteem and self actualization.

This striving away from a lower need that has been that calls for satisfaction stems from that fact that people tend to attach the greatest importance to those things they already have to a reasonable degree, and concentrate more on those things that are yet to be obtained and enjoyed. Here in lies the significance of the need hierarchy.

THE TWO FACTOR THEORY: HERTZBERG

This theory builds upon the former (Maslow’s theory) Herzberg conducted experiment on motivation and drawing from the data collection, he identified two vital factors in every job. First there are certain elements in a job which include adequate salary, adequate working conditions, job security and fringe benefits. From Herzberg’s point of view, these things are necessary before the worker could even begin to be motivated. These maintenance factors are these which:

When not present will cause dissatisfaction and if present will present dissatisfaction, but will not motivate people to greater performance. Herzberg factors in a poor analogy with the way the term in used in preventive medium. He concluded that there were ten maintenance factors namely:

a. Company policy and administration

b. Technical supervision

c. Salary

d. Interpersonal relation with supervisor

e. Interpersonal relation with peer

f. Interpersonal relation with subordinates

g. Job security

h. Personal life

i. Status

Beyond the maintenance factor Herzberg calls the remaining the motivation factors. These were the things that could really bring positive attitude and motivation will result.

The motivational factors which he called satisfier include:

a. Recognition

b. Achievement

c. Advancement

d. The work itself

e. The possibility of growth

f. Responsibility

THEORY X AND Y

McGregor from previous theories discussed so far there are several factors that we count upon the motivate people. The manner, in which any of the theories will be applied, will be determined by the concepts about man himself. Douglas McGregor has come up with two theories in explaining man and motivation, which he called theory X and theory Y.

THEORY X ASSUMPTION

1. The average man dislike work and he will avoid it to the extent he can.

2. Therefore most people have to be forced or threatened with punishment to get them to make the efforts necessary to accomplish organization goals.

3. The average individual is basically passive and therefore prefers to be directed rather than to assume any risk or responsibility and would prefer security.

THE THEORY Y ASSUMPTIONS

a. Work is natural to man as play or rest and therefore cannot be motivated.

b. Self motivation and inherent satisfactory in work will be forthcoming in situation where the individual is committed to organizational goals. Hence, coercions is not only form of influence that can be use to motivate.

c. Commitment is a crucial factor in motivation and it is a function of rewards coming from it.

d. The responsibility given to power environment.

e. Contrary to populace stereotypes, the ability to be creative and innovative in the solutions of organizational problems is widely not narrowly distributed in the population.

f. In modern business and organization human intellectual potentials are just partially realized.

EXPECTANCY INSTRUMENTALITY: VROOM

Instrumentality is the relationship between an individual’s goals or the reward he desires and the organizational objectives that he is expected to fulfill. It exists when a person sees that productivity, will result in his receiving the reward he desires, such as wages to make a recapitulation of the meaning of the term, it can be said to be individuals perception of the degree of relationship between the first level outcome and the second level outcome, this theory attempt to relate effort to rewards.

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION: MCCLELLAN

There is a view on motivation that some people have a compelling drive to succeed for the sake of success alone. David McClelland have been the primary influence upon this view and he has named this need to achieve “N-Ach” motive. After years of research, McClelland described high achievers as:

1. People who seek to do things better

2. People who seek situation where they can attain personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems.

3. People who dislike succeeding by chance.

4. People who work our opportunities where their desire to achieve will not be thwarted.

5. People who seek and use concrete, measurable feed back of the result of their actions.

6. People who develop comprehensive plans to help them attain their goals.

The implications of N-Ach research are far reaching desires people to act on the basis of an internally induced stimulus rather than replying or externally imposed motivators.

Further understanding of the concept behind N-Ach research can assist administration in explaining and predicting employee behavior.

Maslow (1954) in his theory mentioned above identified the primary (basic) and the higher needs. Also Herzberg in his maintenance theory of motivation demonstrated the importance of these higher needs. He came up with the ideas that job satisfaction is a factor that motivates workers for effective job performance increase productivity from this theory. The employer of a worker now knows the importance of job satisfaction and does everything to realize this.

Contributing to the effects of higher need, satisfaction and the job performance, McClelland (1961) in this achievement theory assist that there is a high positive consideration between need for achievement and performance and executive success. He does further to say that achievement oriented persons have certain characteristics that can be developed a staff worker who is achievement oriented persons have certain characteristics that can be develop oriented does the following:

1. Enjoy moderate risk taking as a function of skill not chance enjoy challenge and want personal responsibilities for outcomes.

2. Tends to set moderate achievement goals and takes calculated risks.

3. Have a strong need for feedback about how well he is doing.

4. Have skill in long range planning and posses originally abilities.

Having been acquainted with McClelland achievement theory, the employer of an achievement oriented workers with the knowledge of the above list point (1-4) do everything possible to make the staff work achieve his aims as mentioned above this in turn enhances his performances and the resultant effect bring high productivity, the objective of the organization.

2.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter looked at the literature review on liquidity management and profitability of manufacturing companies. Literature examined on measures of liquidity, factors that influence liquidity requirement and relationship between liquidity and profitability.