THE PITFALLS OF POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMMES IN THE CURBING THE INCIDENCE OF POVERTY IN RURAL AREAS
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter discusses the review of literature relevant to the study and the method adopted for this work.
2.1 Concept of Poverty
Poverty according to many scholars is a satanic word that has different perception. To some it is hard to come to a specific definition of poverty.
Haiman as cited in Kure (2002) viewed poverty as the inability to satisfy basic needs required for a decent living, more often those who are considered poor are those whose resources are inadequate to meet the basic necessities of life. Poverty has a vicious circle and breaking away from it is very complex. This is based on the facts that poor families have high probability of staying poor. They have low income, they carry with them high risk of sickness, limited access to education, information and better health care. Hence the cruel legacy of poverty is passed on from parents to children and from generations to generations.
Haiman is cited in Kure (2002) viewed poverty as the inability to satisfy basic needs required for a decent living more often, those who are considered poor are those whom resources are inadequate to meet the basic necessities of life. According to him poverty has a various cycle and breaking away from it is very complex. This is based on the fact that poor families have high probabilities staying poor. They have low income levels, they carry with them high risk of likeness, limited access to education, limitations of mobility, information and training indeed, poor parents cannot give their opportunities to have access to good health and education which are required to improve their lots and that of their children in the future. Hence the cruel legacy of poverty is passed on from parents to children and from generations to generations. The poor are often illiterates with poor health and have a short span of life.
According to Obason (1997) poverty is a subset of the general condition of deprivation whose dimensions include social inferior, isolation and physical weakness, vulnerability, sustainability and powerlessness and humiliation. Similarly, Oscar as cited in Obadan (1997) observed that social and physical characteristics at the poor include living crowded slums and quarters. Lack of privacy, high incidence of alcoholism frequent into sex and prostitutions, relatively high incidence of the abandonment of mothers and children.
The above expression demonstrates the features of a poverty stricken economy like Nigeria for instance, in most slums area, where the urban poor like, it is common sight to see a whole family squatting and squeezing in a room for accommodation amidst dangers it posses to their health in vulnerable for the people and that all sorts of social vices and their health in some cases, the environment is so odd that living conditions becomes more prostitution, wife beating, rape, rubbery, child abuse and all sorts of things human degradation are a way of live on the city ghetto.
Association with above is the release of second-hand clothing, shoes and bedding etc. with all its associated health hazards. This is simply because the poor can hardly afford new one, even if they are cheap.
I Mc Namara (1978) conceive poverty as a condition of life characterized by malnutrition, illiteracy, disease squalid surrounding, high infant mortality and low life expectance as to beneath human definition of reasonable decency.
Akel et al as cited in Kure (2002), affirmed poverty condition as dehumanizing since it deprive individuals the right to exercise the explanation of their full potentials. In another ways, akumandewa (1997) perceived poverty as a multifaceted deprivation characterized by lack of purchasing power, exposure to risk insufficient access and economy service and limited opportunities to income generation. This is an indication that in spite of the absence of a universally applicable and qualitatively sophisticated interpretation of poverty, the poor in any given society usually sands out prominent in terms of their economic activities, cultural affiliations, social status and other psychological conditions.
Akere Dolu (1975) states that since poverty affect many aspects human condition, the various criteria used for conventionalizing poerty appear elusive. In this world Anyawu (1974:94) conventionalized poverty to include:-
a) Poverty as a consequence of deficit goods and services based on the absolutes or conventional economic approaches. This concept is measured by consumer oriented indices which became achievable, consumption levels food supply, medicine and basic needs.
b) Poverty as a consequence of deprivation and lack of rights. This is based on relative deprivation capacity and entitlement approaches based on indices such as income from wage labour and income from sold assets.
c) Poverty resulting from in sufficient capacity. This is based on capability approach and is measure by indices of market for goods as well as freedom capability; this is based on capability of transferring resources.
d) Poverty as a consequences of social and economic exclusion mechanism this is based on the paradox of solidarity specialization and monopolization measured by indices of participation, social, economic and polices participation, however results in argument that poverty should have both qualitative and quantitative dimensions and should include social economic, and political dimension.
The above criteria for determining poverty could be summarized into three broad measures which are common to all societies. The measures are both qualitative and quantitative dimensions and should include social economic and political dimensions. The criteria as given by Okunmadewa (1997) are classified under the following:
a) Absolute measures which consider measures of resources endowment that guarantees minimum basket of essential goods and services.
b) Relative measure which takes into account the population distribution within define levels of income of the population.
c) Subjective measure which considered human welfare indicators as defined by selected individual or combination of social welfare
parameters including levels of consumption, health availability and portable drinking water.
Dike (1997) define poverty as inability of an individual or population to meet the basic needs of food, education, housing, health security, liberty, individual right to property and access to employment an credit needs.
It is generally, agreed that the process of growth and development is related to the persistence of mass poverty in large part of the glob despite tremendous expansion of the forces of production, poverty is as a result of the mobility of a nation to optimized the use of natural human and materials. Maxwell (1999) gave a list of the terms with which poverty has been described. These include income or consumption poverty, human (under) development, social exclusion, ill being, (lack of) capacity and functioning, vulnerability, livelihood unsustainability, lack of basic need and relative deprivation.
According to Nguyet (2003),poverty refers to the state of a part of population that is not provided with the basic human needs that is in accordance with the socio-economic development level and local habits of the nation. Undp (1999) views poverty as the state of being deprived of those opportunities and choice that are essential to human development for a long, healthy, creative life; for a reasonable standard of living: for freedom, dignity, self-respect and respect fro others.
The World Bank define poverty according to accessible resources, this is to say, according to monetary income. The poor are, then, those who fall short of certain income threshold and for a certain amount of expenditure for consumption. Kapheth (2003) vies households as those whose resources are sufficient to provide basic nourishment, shelter, and quality of life which arc considered as conventional or “normal” in that particular society. This idea of relative deprivation represents an attempt to conceive poverty in sociological terms rather than in the economic framework adopted by most government and by many early academic studies of the phenomenon.
According to Sen (1985), people who lack the capacity to function in society might have lower well being or be more vulnerable to income and weather shocks. Thus, poverty means lack of command over commodities in general (i.e. a severe constriction of the choice set) or a specific type of consumption. (i.e. too little food energy intake) deemed essential to constitute a reasonable standard of living in a society, or lack of “ability” to function in a society.
Poverty I s also associate with insufficient outcome with respect to health, nutrition and litracy, leading to deficient social relations, to
insecurity, and to low self-confidence and powerlessness. According to world bank (2002), “poverty” is pronounced deprivation in well-being. Where well-being can be measured by an individual‟s possession of income, health, nutrition, education, assets, housing, and certain rights in a society, such as freedom of speech. Also poverty is lack of opportunities, powerlessness, and vulnerability defined as the probability or risk today of being in poverty or falling deeper into poverty in the future and is a key dimension of well-being since it affects individual‟s behaviour (in terms of investment, production patterns, cooping strategies and the perception of own situation.
Olaitan et al (2002) defined poverty as the scarcity of basic human needs for existence. He further opined that individual poverty is one of the results from individual misfortunes or inability to obtain the basic necessities of life like essential clothing, three square meals a day, a habitable house and means of transportation either by land, sea, or air, while a community, group or nation that could not provide basic needs for its members is poor.
Poor individuals live in traditional sub-standard house made up of mud or clay, thatches or straw material without health facilities and their environment is usually filled with human waste especially in the rural areas and disadvantaged outskirts of urban settlements called ghettos (Olaitan, et
al, (2002). It is a situation where an individual is not able to cater adequately for his/her basic need of food, clothing and settler, social and economic obligations, lacks gainful employment and infrastructure such as education, health, portable water, and sanitation and consequently has limited chances of advancing his welfare to the limit of his capabilities.
Trager (2002) categorized the following as poor especially with the Nigeria context:
i. Households or individuals below the poverty line and whose income are sufficient to provide for their basic needs:
ii. Households or individuals lacking access to basic services and other forms of support.
iii. People in isolated rural area that lack essential infrastructure.
iv. Female-headed household.
v. Persons who have lost their jobs and those who are unable to fine employment as a result of economic reform under the structural adjustment programmes (SAP) and those who are in danger of becoming the new poor as a result of unemployment especially in urban centres.
Poverty is a word that is used in at least three different ways. Each poses questions, which every society should be prepared to answer. The first
usage poses question about hardships, misery and destitution, conditions which are still occasionally found, among lowley-paid workers as well as people out of work. The second usage poses question about the income, wealth and real living standards to different kinds of people: the answer will not provide a scientific measure of subsistence poverty, for that cannot be clearly defined, but they will show whose living standards are the lowest and may suggest the reasons for these pattern. The third usage poses questions about inequality, exclusion, discrimination, injustice and relative poverty. If this third concept of poverty is to have any practical cutting edge, it calls for nothing less than a new morality (Dennison, 1982). This authors view poverty as a standard of living so low that it excludes people from community in which they live. Poverty according to Ani (1997) in Adegbite and Akintola is a condition of life characterized by malnutrition diseases, illiteracy, and low life expectation of human decency. It is a state of want, deprivation, low-esteem and lack of actualization for self-development. When defined by standard measure of income and expenditure of households, poverty is the inability of any household to attain a level of income necessary to purchase the various goods and services considered by those in the reference group of that household, to be sufficient for living (Nweze, 2002). In terms of non-material/intangible assets, poverty can be
seen as lack of adequate access to minimum social amenities, vulnerability to risks and other factors such as infection, and lack of enough and appropriate nutrition etc. statistical agencies and researchers through out the world, responding to different concern, are utilizing two very broad concepts of poverty today. One is the concept of absolute poverty, understood as the minimum set of resources a person needs to survive. The other is the concept of relative poverty, a measurement resources and living conditions of part of the population in relation to the other. Absolute poverty is a matter of acute deprivation, hunger, premature death and sufferings while relative poverty are clearly a matter of social equity (Schwartzman, 1998).
However, Eva and Jackie (1998) were of the view that all definitions of poverty may be fitted into one of the following categories.
i. Poverty is having less than objectively defined absolute minimum.
ii. Poverty is having less than others in society in relative terms.
iii. Poverty is felling you do not have enough to get along.
Poverty according to the first category definitions is absolute, and according to the second category, it is relative. Poverty according to the third category is mixture of absolute and relative poverty which is split into budget standards method and income proxy measure.
2.2 Causes of Poverty
According to world bank (2002), one route for investigating the causes of poverty is to examine the dimensions highlighted by poor people and these include lack of income and assets to attain basic necessities (food, shelter, clothing and acceptable levels of health and education), sense of voiceless ness and powerlessness in the state and society, and vulnerability to adverse shocks linked to inability to cope with them. Jordan (2004) noted that causes of poverty manifest in unemployment, low income inequality while cultural causes include rising rates of divorce, female headed single parent families, teenage pregnancy, drug/alcohol abuse and criminal activities. Schwartzman (1998) also identified different causes of poverty associated with demographic conditions such as family size, unemployment, poor quality jobs, lack of education, social discrimination, lack of “social capital” such as family and community organizations and networks: economic changes, climate changes, natural catastrophes, and war.
In Nigeria, it has been identified that lack of access to income generating opportunities, families system, lack of pragmatism in national education and usage, rural-urban drift and poor policies cause poverty. (Olaitan ET el, 200; Ajekaiye and Adeyeye, 2002). More over, Yusuf (1999)
and UNDP (2004) reported that the dominance of the oil sector and the consequent neglect of the agricultural sector in terms of policy and resources result in declining productivity, growth and competitiveness and increased poverty. further-more, Nwaobi (2003) noted that failure to adequately implement programmes geared towards the provision of master plans for future expansion and better physical facilities such as adequate water supply facilities, housing, sewage, electricity and efficient transport and communications network including the establishment of necessary institutions to ensure their maintenance can be seen as the precursor to most of the present causes of poverty in Nigeria. According to Francis et al (2002), local people‟s perceptions of main causes of poverty include unemployment, poor environment, lack of capital, lack of farm inputs, poor roads, inefficient transportation system, poor crop yields, lack of food over population, conflicts, corruption, poor and unstable output prices and lack of health care services.
The consequences of poverty are numerous. They include prostitution, inefficient and inadequate food production exposure to risks like corruption, robbery, street life, increased unemployment, malnutrition, low per capital income, overcrowded living conditions, low level of education, human degradation, short span, high infant mortality, fraud, and migration (Olaitan
et al 2000). In support of the above, Schwartzman (1998) noted that poverty particularly when associated with war and economic disaster, leads to social unrest, national and international migration and threatens the life styles of those who are better off. Poverty also reduces farmer‟s ability to bear risk and are thus less able to invest in high income-generating activities associated with high risk. (Mosley and Verschoor, 2003, Fatchamps, 1997).
In poor countries, like Nigeria, causes of poverty overlap Atonga (1995) sees poverty as a direct result of unemployment and poor income; illiteracy, hunger, ill health, inadequate shelter and according to him do visit the same persons, the same family, the same shanty and slums and the same marginal or rural area.
Kure (2002) stated that several factors account for poetry in rural area and they could be explained from the perspective of government neglect and abuse of government functions and policies. It has been said in the beginning that the majority of the rural dwellers are not given adequate attention by the government to uplift in the living conditions of these rural communities in terms of housing, water supply, road networks electricity and health facility most of which are concentrated in the urban centre. Rural areas therefore suffered neglects particularly during and after the oil boom of the (190s and
early 1980s). The rural sectors was starved of human resources simply because the ruling elites and policy.
Maker (2007) identified with a non rural environment and was led astray by empirical assessors that show a high rate of co-relation between levels of development models which stressed investment industries with little attention to agriculture.
Abu (2001) noted certain cultural practices in Nigeria as some of the factors that caused poverty. Culture and religious affiliation according to him moderate the roles in most hardly have access to education, land and other productive ventures and hence could not acquire wealth and incomes of their own. In such areas women are mostly seen as child manufactures and are fully exploited as such. These attitudes favor rapid population growth without adequate resources to match economically. Where population growth outweighed available resources there is bound to be poverty.
Afonsa and Dusola (1997) noted that in some southern part of the country women have no right to inheritance, cultural belief do not allow them to own properties such as lands are thus reduced to beggars for a piece of land to carry out any activities. To further buttress the above argument, they observed that poverty thus results through discrimination. This implies
the unequal opportunity given to people to participate in the production process on the basis of sex, age, ethnicity and religious consideration aggravates the level of poverty.
In the same vein Okpanachi (2002) sees poverty as a consequence of unequal opportunity in education pursuit, health sanitary, social services, economic and political power have been the cause of poverty in Nigeria. This subjects the majority to not having access to gainful employment that could afford them minimum level of poverty. He added that unequal opportunities in educational pursuit, health sanitation, social services economic and political powers have been the causes of poverty among rural dwellers. This subjects the majority to not having access to gainful employment that could afford them minimum level of income.
Galadima (1999) stated that conspicuous and wasteful life style exhibited by the government officials and they so called elites in our societies is a cause for concern. This category of people mortgage national resources at the detriment of the vast majority and larger part of the national wealth, are kept abroad in their personal account without resources to reinvesting such ill gotten and primitive accumulation of such wealth into the economy. This singular problems has raised the level of unemployment and hence poverty level.
Furthermore, Osborn (1997) noted that capital formation had suffered greatly especially human capital. Inadequate attention paid to social welfare programmes had made life worse for the large population in this country.
Furthermore, it is often disturbing to note that host government policies are biased towards the poor. No adequate attention and assistance in terms of relief as paid to temporary victims of natural disasters like draught, floods. Fire outbreaks accident and man made disasters such as wars, commercial clashes, religious and political riots are all living witnesses to these, but there are no political will to act decisively in defense of right of the affected people. They are therefore subjected to temporary or permanent poverty because once their resources are destroyed by one of the agents above the hope of acquiring same be very elusive. The situation is made worst by the poor themselves. The poor lack the courage and cohesion to demand for their rights, they are therefore abandoned economically, politically, socially and culturally and conventionally too.
Adamu (1998) stated that in co-operating of the Nigeria state into the capitalist system by the colonialist cannot be delivered as one of the root causes of massive poverty experience in Nigeria today. This has been sustained through net works of factors mobility and trade, which has consistently ensured that one set of countries benefited from the situation
(Aka et al 1997) one can also posit that the militarization of Nigeria state by the military Junta enables them to arrogate political and economic powers top themselves at the expense of the vast majority of Nigeria: this had contributed to the delay in the economy and had raised the level of the poverty in this country.
Civil unrest experienced in different parts of the country is another serious factor that is contributing to enhancing poverty level in Nigeria. For instance since the inception of democracy in May (1999, there has been series of civil in stakes like Rivers, Lagos, Abia, Taraba, to mention just a few. The outcome of this crisis is mention destruction of human lives, houses, business premises, places of worship (Mosques and Churches etc.). Thereby subjecting the victims to dangerous and the quickest factor pushing into poverty in this country and its need to give adequate attention in our contemporary.
Anyanwu (1997) posited that understand the level of poverty in rural areas one may adopt the basic needs approach to the measurement of the poverty. Basic needs consist of the primary and secondary needs. The former comprises of food including water, clothing and shelter, un-like the later consist of economic, social and cultural rights, liberty, freedom of expression and religion, individual right to own properties, access to
productive employment, credit etc. these needs are supposed to be met through individual resources or that of the family or community or a combination of both. The absence of these resources lead to powerlessness and despair and thus the inability to protect oneself against economic, social, cultural and political dissemination, deprivation and marginalization, (Denga 1995) Olowari 1997 noted the geographical spread of poverty. He asserted that the incidence of poverty could be seen among wage carries across the country. He also noted that the level of poverty tend to increase across with the age of the house holds at age brackets of 56 – 65 and especially those that are in the neighbor hold of illiterate house holds.
2.3 Poverty Incidence in Nigeria
Poverty is a general phenomenon in Nigeria. It is a common problem that cannot be easily wiped out except available basic needs and resources are acquired eventually distributed among the citizens to individuals to shift the status to a more positive direction through training, work and opportunities (Olaitan et al 2000).
The Nigerian poverty profile indicates that the proportion of the poor rose from 28.1 percent (18 million people) in 1980 to 46.3 percent (35 million people) in 1985. this dropped to 42.7 percent in 1992 but catapulted
to 70 percent (79 million people) in 1999 (Table 2). The poverty indicator used was low income that tends to be its worst in the rural areas due to malnutrition, lack of education, low life expectancy and substandard housing.
Poverty in Nigeria is pervasive; more than 45%of Nigerians are living below the poverty line, while about 80% of those affected are living in the rural areas of the country (UNDP, 1998). Moreover, recent repot by UNDP (2004) indicates that in 2001, the 70% of the population lived below the international income poverty line of $ 1 a day.
Before the discovery of oil, Nigeria‟s economy was primarily agricultural and despite its decreased role as a component of GDP, the sector continues to employ about 72% of the labor force. It is not surprising then that 68 percent of the extreme poor are dependent on agriculture for their liveholds. Most are mainly self-employed of family workers lived in regions with poor infrastructure, poor access services, unfavorable agro climatic conditions, among others (FOS, 1999).
Despite several nationally coordinated programmes for alleviating poverty in Nigeria such as Green revolution, operation feed the Nation, Nation Agricultural and Rural Development authority, Directorate of food, Road and Rural infrastructure, Nation poverty Eradication programmes etc.
the population of the poor has continued to rise in Nigeria as shown in table2.
2.4 Infrastructures and Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria Local Government.
A major element of poverty reduction strategy is to reduce the isolation of poor communities through strengthening socio-economic infrastructure such as roads, water supply, electricity and sanitation. This is so because grossly underdeveloped and inefficient infrastructure have contributed to the deplorable poverty situation in the country especially in the rural communities.
New or improved infrastructure can help reduce poverty by: a) economic growth: this is the process of increasing the productively of the economy and hence of increasing income. Again, infrastructure provides the environment for productive activities to take place and facilities the distribution of economic growth. Productive process may be inhibited by the absence of adequate power, water, transport and communication facilities.
The availability of an efficient infrastructural network will stimulate new investment in other sectors while its shortage can raise coasts and create disincentive to invest. According to African development bank report,
infrastructure and poverty reduction arises through the contribution of infrastructure and the process of pro-poor growth (ADB,1999). This refers to a process of growth that makes the share of the poor in additional income growth higher than the shire in existing income, thus making their income grow more rapidly than those of the non-poor. The poor are often identified with inadequate access to infrastructural services such as motor able roads, potable water, sanitation, educational and health facilities. These are described as “input indicators” of poverty. The in accessibilities of there input indicators to the poor will have a negative impact on the output indicator of poverty which consists of life expectancy. Literacy, income and nutrition. In summary, new or improved infrastructure can help reduce poverty channeling the growth towards the poor. Consequently for infrastructural services to lead to poverty reduction there is need to identify a significant number of projects for which a high proportion of the beneficiaries must be the poor. The surest means of achieving this is by the development of equitable distribution of infrastructural services in the rural areas.
2.5 Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria.
The increasing incidence of poverty both within and among locations was in spite of various resources and efforts exerted on poverty-related programmes and schemes in the country. In the light of the present government‟s deep concern for the widespread and scourging poverty, this paper will review previous and current initiative at poverty alleviation/reduction in Nigeria.
Until the inauguration of poverty alleviation programmes development committee (PAPDC) by the Nigerian government in 1994, all efforts at poverty alleviation were essentially ad-hoc. It was generally case that poverty alleviation programmes and strategies were not crystallized and consolidated within the nations overall development objectives. This view in borne out of perusal of the various National Development plans over 1962-
82 period and national development/rolling plans from 1990. the main significance of the national development/rolling plans is that they provide much of the framework for the pursuit of development objectives since the attainment of political independence, in 1960. the approach to poverty alleviation that has features prominently in Nigeria‟s national development plans is the economic growth strategy. This economic growth presumes the tricking down of the benefits of growth to the poor, and the strategy of rural/agricultural development. Although rural development can be seen as
having been central to Nigeria‟s poverty alleviation strategies, the centerpieces of the rural development policy has been agricultural development complemented by social and economic infrastructures. For a long time now, the growth performance of the country has not been satisfactory, with negative growth in the first half o f the 1980s and very low growths since 1992 (an average of 2.5 percent from 1992-1999). Even in periods of favourable economic growth, Nigeria did not experience considerable or commensurate poverty reduction. In 1985-1992, there was slight increase in GDP and per capital income, but inequality worsened and the core-poor did not share in the growth as the depth and severity of poverty did not improve significantly. This suggests the need for a strategy of growth with equity for poverty reduction.
Poverty is a world wide phenomenon its scourge is more pronounce in the rural areas that urban set-up, poverty is an important aspect of the index of under-development. Kure (2002) stated that he alleviation of poverty in the development countries, especially in Nigeria rural poor in an issue of great concern to the government of the federal republic of Nigeria, the World Bank and other non-international agencies.
A lot has been done through seminars, symposium and workshops to generate idea aimed at tacking poverty so as to improve the quality of life of those trapped by poverty.
Abubakar (1975) postulated that since 1960 till date, rural development has been on the priorities of most government. He is of the view that the development of the rural areas will help to rescue the indigene of poverty since most Nigerian lives in rural areas.
Ali (1975) support the above view he is of the opinion that agriculture is of tha major occupation of the rural people and the heart beat of the rural dwellers. To tackle the problem of poverty, agriculture has to change from crude and primitive method of production to the modern technique of production.
In Nigeria, successive government has tried to improve like of others living in rural by given to agriculture, Eboli, Okoye and Ayichi (199) listed the following as some of the measure taken by the government to boast agriculture to alleviate poverty especially for those living in rural areas.
a) National acceleration food programme 1992.
b) Introduction of Agricultural development programme (ADPS) 1975.
c) Agricultural credit grarantee scheme of ACDS of (1977)
d) River basin development authorities RBDAS (1978)
e) Rural banking scheme (1978)
Apart from the above efforts and others initiated by the federal various programmes, board, farm settlement scheme, rural development authorities, community farm project, were put in place by various regional or state government with various objectives aimed at rural poverty alleviation, as noted (Lele ans Adunyako 1991), Okene 1992 (Chamber 1983) in almost all the actions whether national or regional in courage were heavily based towards agriculture as it was assumed that agriculture development was synonymous with rural development. They also noted that despite all the general all the effort to alleviate poverty, the rural areas and people are characterized by general poverty, trap, low income and investment rate set. Unauthorized national resources, rapidly increasing population underdevelopment, low productivity of labour between traditional teachers and limited entrepreneurship, high level of illiteracy, ignorance, disease and malnutrition, non absence of social and physical infrastructure, political powerlessness, gullibility and high level of vulnerability.
The above factor shows a lot needs to be done in the areas of poverty alleviation.
Akpan and Olaniyi (1993) postulated that about two thirds of Nigerians 88.5 million citizens still live in an estimated 97:000 rural
communities, they lives are characterized by poverty misery, morbidity and underdevelopment. The characterized of agriculture and their main occupation had declined overtime. Because 1973 and 1979 positive growth was recorded for agriculture alone. In the other years, the growth of agriculture was negative this affected rural people and hence poverty. Most of the rural people depend directly on agriculture.
As stated earlier in our review, the boldest attempt by government to alleviated poverty is the establishment of agriculture and development programme (ADP) the (ADP) system is designed to impress the traditional system of the production and raise the productivity income and standard of living of the small scale farmers who produce 90% gross domestic food supplies (Olayemi 1980) the system according to Olayemi is based on the premise that any combined efforts applying almost simultaneously can reduce the problems of low productivity of farmers due largely to limited access to credit. Lack of improve inputs and technologies and inadequate rural infrastructures. In order words, the (ADP) strategy is an integrated approach to agricultural and rural development. It is necessary to state here that while ADP system not involved in direct food production, its main mandate is the creation of enabling environment for the holder farmers to produce efficiently, this will alleviate poverty.
Johnson and Kirby (1975) used the naturally integrated programmes of rural development as a measure to alleviate poverty. The programmes are usually characterized by careful definition of needs and resources of a target population and implementation phasing of multi-sectional components and complete restricting of related institutions. These programmes have taken place in Japan, China and Korea, Pakistan and Mexico. This helped to reduce poverty in these countries.
Ekpo (1988) stated that despite decades of utilizing both approaches most countries including Nigeria have not been able to positively transform its rural sector. There are several factors which could explain this. This existing orthodox theoretically frame work explaining development in general and rural development in particular does not deal with issues like the relation of production power relation within a country. Relationship between the country and the rural people and predominate more of poverty reduction. He suggested the implementation of comprehensive adjustment in macro and micro economic policies both to respond to various shocks and to rectify inappropriate past policies that have hampered economic activities of which is to restore sustainable economic growth; these shocks have
adversely affected rural people.
Ekpo and Olaniyi (1993) stated that the directorate of food and roads and rural infrastructure (DFFRI) was one of the steps taken to alleviate poverty. The objective of DFFRI, according to them was to improve quality of life of the rural people, greater improvement in the quality, value and national balance of their food intakes, raising the quality of rural housing as well as the general living conditions and working environments in the rural area improving the health condition of the rural people and creating greater opportunities for human development and employment especially self empowerment and invariably enhancing rural income levels.
Despite the above laudable objective, the rural sector is devoid of development. Bond (1983) shows that the relatively low, long run price responsiveness to total agricultural output in rural area call for concern and Binswanger (1989) stated that the reason for this can be partly explain on what has been happening to infrastructure ion sub-sahara Africa.
Available evidence suggests that agricultural output is particularly sensitive to both economic and social infrastructure Binswanger (1989; lese 1996 Morse Bance 1989, Mock 1986 and Jamison and Mock 1984. this is true of the physical infrastructure given the already large transport margin that often applies.
From the forgoing, it is clear that the activities of DFFRI since its establishment in 1986 has not really affected the lives of those living on rural areas and poverty alleviation remains an allusion. Assert
Alkasum as cited in Agbory (2002) asserted that the ruling class in Nigeria accumulated wealth through improving foreign food products, machinery fertilizer, other chemical and agricultural equipments. They embarks on food importation for reason other than meeting food products but rather helped to suppress domestic production. This in turn worsens the plight of rural people.
Ogboru (2002) viewed the human tragedy that constitutes rural poverty crises in Nigeria with respect to the domination of rural areas and the proletarian, peasants, several mechanisms and factors defined the essence decimation perpetuated by the rural communities. It is grossly inadequate the distribution of economic wealth, power and social amenities the peasantry is last in the line.
The social consequences of this trend are enormous, firstly, the rural people have little land and because they are denied access to their means of production, two effects surfaced. One human ploletarianisation and two commercialization of labour in the first instance. The hitter to employed labourer now become city dweller with on specific objectives to be
considered in the second effects, those who could afford a job, would sell their labour to whosoever cold hire it. This job have no security hence the could be hired and fried at will, even though they are been exploited.
Aloso (1997) stated that the rural popular mostly the peasantry has no direct cleaning with policy workers, finance and research findings. This has further reduced effort at alleviating poverty. They are not involved in eroding a lasting programme of improving their lots, rather, peasant development has become a humanistic obligation on the part of the enlightened who let the benefits of modern technology ticket down to the grass roots and reduce to what the powerful decide to implement for the benefit of the people.
Thus the operation feed the nation, the green revolution, the river basin development projects and all other programmes aimed at alleviation poverty were little known to the consumers and the \class producing them can not be said evolution or policies geared towards alleviation of poverty.
On a general note, the policies only enhance the position of ruling class in Nigeria to accumulate wealth to the detriment of the masses.
2.6 Government Programmes and Policies Related to Poverty.
In the light of the government‟s concern for poverty reduction, numerous policies and programmes were designed at one time and the other,
if not to meet the special needs of the poor, but at reach them. The advent of the structural adjustment programmes in 1986 brought out more forcefully the need for policies and programmes to alleviate poverty and period safely nets for the poor. This emphasis arose from an awareness of the unintended negative effects of structural adjustment policies on the vulnerable group in the society. While structural adjustment had its salutary effect on economic growth, it lacked emphasis on development and also accentuated socio- economic problems of income inequality, unequal access of food, shelter, education, health and other necessities of life. It indeed aggravated the incidence of poverty among many vulnerable groups in the society.
As a result of the continuous determination of living conditions in the late 1980s, several alleviation programmes were implemented. By the end of 1998, there were sixteen poverty alleviation institutions in the country, in 1994, the government set up a broad-based Poverty Alleviation Programmes Development Committee. The primary objective of the PAPDC was to advise the government on the design, coordination and implementation of poverty alleviation Programmes, its work contributed immensely to the emergence of a new approach to the design and organization of poverty alleviation programmes culminating in the establishment in 1996 of the community action programmes for poverty alleviation (CAPPA) CAPPA
was a community-based approach, which adopted a combination of social funds and social action strategy. CAPPA document drew largely from the past experience on poverty reduction efforts in the country and attempted to ensure that poor are not only carried along in the design and implementation of poverty project projects that affects them but that the poor themselves actually formulate and manage the poverty projects. Various agencies (government, donor and NGOs) involved in poverty alleviation in the country have embraced the CAPPA strategy. Also in 1990, the federal government through the national planning commission produced a national poverty alleviation policy document. It‟s in the immediate and distant future. However, the fact that the incidence of poverty remained very high the existence of the various programmes not withstanding, pointed to the ineffectiveness of the failure of past poverty-related programmes and effects. Some of them are:
e.) Lack of training mechanisms for the poor and the fact that most of the programmes do not focus directly on the poor.
f.) Political and policy instability resulting in frequent policy changes and inconsistent implementation.
g.) inadequate coordination of the various programmes resulting in each institution carrying out its own activities with resulting duplication of
efforts and inefficient use of limited resources. Overlapping functions ultimately led to institutional rivalry and conflicts. For example, the better life programme had the same functions and objectives as the family support program, and the present National Poverty Eradication Programmes (NAPEP).
h.) server budgetary management and government problems afflicted most of the programs, resulting in facilities not being completed, broken down and abandoned, unstuffy and unequipped.
i.) Lack of accountability and transparency there by making the programmes to serve as conduit pipes for draining national resources
j.) Overextended scope of activities of most institutions, resulting in resources being spread too thinly on too many activities. Examples are the directorate for roads and rural infrastructure (DFRR) and better life programmes, which covered almost every sector and overlapped with many other existing programmes. Some government programmes on poverty alleviation are:-
(i) The national directorate of Employment: which consists of four main programmes, the vocational skills development programmes, the special public works programmes, the small scale Enterprises Programmes, directorate of Food, Roads and rural; infrastructure,
(DFRR) which support mainly rural infrastructure projects; and the better life Programmes, which support a multitude of Programmes targeted at women, including agriculture and extension services, education and vocational training etc.
(ii) Agricultural sector Programmes:- This includes the state agricultural development programmes, the national agricultural land development authority, the strategic gains reserves programmes. The programme for accelerated wheat production, as well as the development of artisan fishery, small ruminant production, pasture and grazing reserves. These programmes promote utilization of land resources through subsidized land development, supply of farm inputs and services, credit extension to farmers, and institutional support for produce making cooperatives.
(iii) Health sector Programmes:- These include the primary health care scheme, which aims at providing at least one health centre in every local government: and the Guinea Worm Eradication Programmes. The guinea worm eradicate program supports health intervention to control diarrhea diseases, eradicate Guinea-worm, and promote changes in knowledge, attitude and practices relating to water use, excreta disposal and general hygiene (CBN), 2001).
(iv) Education sector Programmes:- In the education sector, the nomadic education program development curricula for nomadic education, trained nomadic teachers and provided infrastructure for the nomadic schools, etc.
(v) Transport sector Program:- In the transport sector, the federal Urban mass transit programmes was established in 1988 to rescue the public transport system from imminent collapse. New buses were put into public use and loan schemes helped cooperative and private operators acquire transport vehicles.
(vi) Financial sector Program:- include few initiatives which began in 1989/90: the national economic reconstruction fund which provide long-term loans at concessionary interest rates to promote small and medium scale industrial projects, the people‟s bank of Nigeria which extended credit to the poor etc.
(vii) Nutrition- related Programmes:- these consists of programmes aimed at improving food security, preventing micro-nutrient deficiencies in children and women, promotion of exclusive breast feeding, deforming of school children and promotion of food quality and safety.
2.7 Current Trend at Poverty Reduction
Since inception in May, 1999, the present administration has shown deep concern about the rising incidence of poverty in Nigeria. The government realized that if the worsening poverty situation is not checked, the future of the nation would be doomed. Government therefore introduced a number of programmes and measures that aimed at reducing poverty. These include the universal basic education (UBE) programme, the poverty alleviation programme and the constitution of the Ahmed Joda Panel in 1999 and the Ango Abdullahi Committee in 2001. The immediate tasks of the pane/committees were the streamlining and rationalization of existing poverty alleviation institution in the country, and the coordinated implementation and monitoring of relevant schemes and programmes. Some of the programmes include:-
The Poverty Alleviation Programme (PAP)
This was an interim measures introduced early in 2000 to address the problems of rising unemployment and crime wave, particularly among youths. It aimed at increasing the welfare of Nigerians. The primary objectives of PAP were to: reduce the problems of unemployment and hence raise effective demand in the economy: increase the productivity of the economy; and reduce the crime wave in the society. In order to actualize the objectives of PAP, several measures were taken. Emphasis was placed more on the creation of jobs through public work scheme. To this end, avenues were provided for the gainful employment of 200,000 idle hands. This aspect of the programmes was designed to provide jobs for at least 5000 unemployed in each state of the federation. However, the implementation of the programme was ad-hoc with little attention to the policy framework. The emphasis on massive construction and other public work projects made it look like a one-off affair than a revolving one.
The National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP)
This was introduced early in 2001. NAPEP is the current Programmes which focuses on the provision of strategies for the eradication of absolute poverty in Nigeria (FRN, 2001:3) NAPEP is complemented by the National Poverty Eradication Council (NAPEC), which is to coordinate the reduction related activities of all the relevant activities of all the relevant ministries, parastatals and agencies. It has the mandate to ensure that the wide ranges of poverty-reduction activities are centrally planned, coordinated and harmonized policy continuity and sustainability are achieved. The poverty reduction related activities of the relevant institutions under NAPEP are classified into four namely:-
(i) Youth Empowerment Scheme (YES):- which deals with capacity acquisition, credit delivery, technology development and enterprise promotion.
(ii) Rural Infrastructure Development Scheme (RIDS):- which deals with the provision of potable and irrigation water, transport (rural and urban) rural energy and power support,.
(iii) Social Welfare Services Scheme (SOWESS):- this deals with the special education primary health care services, establishment and maintenance of recreational centres, public awareness facilities, food, youth and student hostel development, environment protection facilities, food security provision, micro and macrocredit delivery, rural telecommunications facilities etc.
Natural Resources Development and Conservation Scheme (NRDCD);- which deals with the harnessing of the agricultural, water, solid mineral resources, conservation of land and space (breaches), reclaimed land, particularly for their effective utilization by small-scale operators and the immediate communities