SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATUREREVIEW

1. Introduction

This section comprises of a review of the literature relevant to the study topic and in line with the specific objectives. The literature scrutinized the causes of divorce, the consequences and the possible solutions to divorce; it also looked at the theoretical and conceptual framework of the study.

1. Causes of divorce

Several causes have been advanced as being responsible for divorce. This section highlights some of these as part of the wider knowledge in the subject matter.

1. Age at FirstMarriage

Social Scientists’ are attempting to understand why couples seek to divorce mostly in the countries found in the western part and the factors that hold the few successful marriages or contribute to divorce (Kreider and Ellis, 2011). The complex social, cultural, demographic and economic factors have been reviewed as a clear cause of high divorce rate. Many societies mark age at marriage as their major interest as it is a transition to adulthood (Ikamari,2005).

The primary predictor of divorce is usually the small age gap between the couples (Stewart-Clarke and Brentano, 2008). A number of separations occur in the early stages of marriages. Young divorced couples are listed in marrying too soon, and thus, the reasons why many marriages don’t last is the urge and pressure of people moving out of their parents’ houses.

According to Lamanna et al. (2014) unavoidability of marriage after dating for a long time, yearning to leave their parents houses, dreams of having a fairy tale wedding and getting married too soon were among the reasons that young divorced men and women listed for causing divorce. Unstable employment, psychological immaturity and a shorter time of dating affect marriage at an early age. Thus individuals who marry at an early age tend to have more marital conflict and high risk of divorce than those who marry at an older age because they are mature, financially stable and are ready to settle (Amato and Previti,2003:5).

Women who are financially stable are less probable to stay in a relationship out of obligation or sheer necessity (Study freak, 2015). The traditional roles of husband and wife as the breadwinner and homemaker respectively have increasingly converged and diverged in the household income.

The average age at first marriage in 2006 to 2010 was 25.8 and 28.3 for women and men respectively hence they were getting married at a later age and having fewer children (Copen et al., 2012). The above studies attempted to explain the constant predictor of marital dissolution as age at first marriage. The effect of age at marriage is considerably frailer in marriages that are open for remarriage opportunities hence marital dissolutions increases where either husbands or wives have chances for spousalalternative.

Individuals who decide to get married at an older age have most likely engaged in a more extensive spousal search as they have gone through a number of dating sprees thus providing them with a higher chance of getting a compatible marriage partner unlike those who get married at a younger age and at a higher risk of dissolving their marriage (Thornton and Young-De Marco 2001). Destabilization of a good relationship is less likely to be experienced by couples married at an older age as there is less or no rapid personal change. The trend toward a later age at marriage is further supported by changes in the economy that make it more difficult for young men to establish sufficient economic security to support a family (Oppenheimer,1997).

Couples that got married at a younger age of 15 to 46 ended up divorcing in the United States. Race and ethnicity did not contribute much to the probability of divorce (NLSY79, 2013).

Arranged marriages contribute to high divorce rate. According to Karayu (2009), in Garissa State parents from different families pick potential partners for their children (both and girls) and early marriage is arranged so that any proposal after the arrangement is turned down. Cohen and Savaya (2003), stated the two children grow knowing they are engaged, they eventually get married because of the cultural practices and not out of love. The marriage takes place at the age of 15 years to avoid promiscuity. Some girls are force into early marriages especially by parents who do not value girl- child education so that they can acquire wealth such goats and camels. This forces the girls to get married to spouses they do not love leading to lack of commitment tothe

marriage (Cohen and Savaya, 2003). For example, in Garissa, education is not mandatory. For instance, boys start doing business such as selling “Miraa” at an early age to start planning on how to fend for their potential families (Were, 2012). According to Malini and Zainab (2006), less than 20% of girls in North Eastern Nigeria do not go to school because their parents prefer forcing them into early marriage to elderly men to getwealth.

1. Women empowerment and increased economicindependence

Bhasin (1992) describes women empowerment as recognition of their roles, knowledge and assisting women overcome negative feelings such as inadequacy and inferiority complex among other fears. It means promoting women’s self-respect, and self-dignity, financial independence, self-reliance and resource control. They must be well knowledgeable about themselves adequately to become freer, and this can only be possible when they understand how much society controls them and perpetuates their subordination (Bhasin, 1992).

Half of the human population are accounted for by illiterate women and therefore, realizing literacy is a fundamental step towards promoting equal participation of women in society and transcend marital exploitation and oppression respectively. Education empowers women to acquire skills, knowledge and self-confidence particularly in health and economic opportunities thus raising their standards of living for that reason enabling them to participate fully in the development process (Sahay, 1998).

Empowered women tend to have autonomy in a male dominated hierarchy. They aim for equality rather than seniority, for corporation for the common good rather than competition.

Through their talents they live a fulfilling life (Hall, 1992). Educated women are able to break from the vicious cycle of male economic dominance in a society hence they are liberated from their partner’s control (Takyi,2001).

Questions are being raised whether women working in developing countries such as Ghana with financial stability and education have the same outcome on divorce as those in the West who are working in great numbers and are more educated. If such occur, then we are likely to face

increased number of divorces among women with financial stability and education than among those without (Takyi, 2001).

1. Extra marital SexualAffairs

Polygyny cannot be avoided in the African society. It is the practice of a man getting married to more than one wife and the stay as one family. This act is believed to balance the economy of the society and maintain the family line (Taiwo, 2010). In addition, this act was well practiced by the ancestors in the past decades, and the trend is believed to have escalated all over the society of Africa. Male population was reduced as a result of the war between groups thus they were outnumbered by females. The number of males reduced, thus making women a larger number; therefore, men were allowed to marry more than one wife (Dobson, 1954).

Traditionally, the number of wives and children was a determinant of how much wealth one had. The large family helped with the cultivation of the farms, it was safer for women to be in the bigger household, more political associations were made because of the more wives, it gave men sexual satisfaction, it was a way of family planning, most widows were assured of husbands if theirs passed on. In the contemporary society, high rates of divorce have been contributed to by infidelity (Erastus,2010).

Breaking of a contract between two people, who engaged in sexual relations that was either dating, married or in a committed relationship was considered infidelity. At its core, it has been expounded to mean any behavior that breaches the contract between two people including the engagement of sexual intercourse with another individual other than your partner (Vaughan, 2003). It has a substantial effect on the couples and the family as a whole which can have an impact on the family relationships and couples social support network (Subotnik and Harris, 2005). Psychological impacts are felt by both spouses and their partners involved in the affair. A couple may come to a decision of staying together or part ways after the revelation of the affair. A feeling of betrayal and lose of trust between the partners involved may arise as a result of anger, shame and embarrassment about these events. They feel loss of sense of purpose andfidelity.

Guiltiness and low self-esteem are some of psychological effects experienced by the person involved with the third party. Couples may be unable to work on their feelings progressively in the relationship as a result of guilt and fear of expressing themselves to their partners about the extramarital affair (Vaughan, 2003).

The level of communication may be hindered by the feeling of betrayal and mistrust making couples not to feel confident to confront infidelity issues that might have occurred in the relationship. In addition, it aggravates the un-resolved issues behind infidelity. Extramarital affair may lead to health problems for both partners and even the third parties involved are not an exception. In addition, sexually transmitted infections can be introduced into the primary relationship. For instance, the lifelong conditions such as HIV can greatly affect the lives of the partners and families (Vaughan, 2003).

Consumer Insight (2012) states that HIV prevalence is much higher in married couples as having a mpango wa Kando (‘a side dish’) has turned out to be the in thing in Nigeria. The gravest blow to the happiness of a marriage is infidelity on either partner. It should not be assumed that an unhappy marriage may drive one to seek sexual satisfaction elsewhere as temptations and opportunities thrive in modern society. An adulterous relationship is considered trendy and glamorous as it is associated with excitement and escape from boredom and usual routine in the union hence’ a new experience’ (Consumer Insight,2012).

Westfall (1989) together with other therapists connected infidelity within the relationship to larger problems. Communication or lack of it play major role in promoting, inhibiting or managing of infidelity occurrences (Milewski et al., 2002). The role of communication in relation to divorce is further discussed in the following section.

1. Lack of communication inmarriage

Research conducted by the Divorce Magazine reports that a large number of people of more than 40,000 people in New York have been separated from their spouses. No matter how the divorce rates have increased, it is advised that couples should ensure that they sort their issues in order to avoid separation. Conflict and potential divorce can be brought about by issues such as finances and differences on how to raise children if there is no better communication (Tandoi, 2012). Some couples work through their problems better than others do, as all couples do have conflicts (Stewart-Clarke and Brentano, 2008).

Couples should work on their communication because it helps to clear doubts between them, make them understand each other and bring them closer making them feel safe. Without communication, it is almost impossible to get on the same page and keep your relationship afloat. A lack of communication can quickly cause misunderstandings, resentments and feelings that you are emotionally far away or distant from each other (Turtenwald, 2012).

Effective communication between couples is promoted by education and therefore helps resolve their differences amicably. In contrast, the decreased expressions of emotional support and increased disagreements over finances makes spouses irritated by the stress generated from economic hardship (Amato, 2003). Men who are employed are more likely to marry and stay married unlike the unemployed. Furthermore, men who are under economic crisis have tendencies to be more hostile, less warm and unsupportive of their wives. Divorce is therefore likely to occur in a situation with less money as wives would be less happy (Stewart-Clarke and Brentano, 2008). In summary, a review of recent divorce cases highlight causes of conflict, including unfaithfulness, cruelty, denial of conjugal rights and financial related conflicts. Others include desertion by husband after wedding, being trapped in a sexless marriage because of husband’s impotence.

1. Consequences ofDivorce

Some of the consequences of divorce can be positive or negative to different individuals. Divorce has not limited the decrease of the number of marriages, rather has acted as an additional reason for its reduction. Therefore, it can then be argued to have favored cohabitation, more than marriage (Balestrino et al., 2013).

1. Divorce and subsequentearnings

Divorce may increase women’s work incentives and productivity, and in turn, earnings. The loss of economies of scale and discontinuation of joint use of resources following divorce may reduce women’s general welfare. This decline may necessitate labor market entry for non- employed women, leading to higher earnings. Or, for employed women, it may encourage an increase in work hours or movement to a higher wage job. Moreover, over the long-run, divorced women may select into occupations that are less “family friendly”, but highly paid (Tamborini et al.,2015).

Divorce may also lead to higher earnings among women by modifying household specialization related to marriage. Labor market stratification models identify household responsibilities, such as childrearing and housework, as a source of gender differences in the labor market (Killewald, 2011). The greater the traditional division of labor in households, with women in household production, including care giving and men focusing in market work (Bianchi et al., 2000), the greater possible reduction in women’s work hours or wages. Conversely, if divorce results in reduction in traditional domestic responsibilities, divorced women may find it easier to devote more time and energy to market activities, leading to higher earnings. In terms of women labor markets outcomes; much of the empirical work has examined women’s income as a determinant of divorce risks rather than a potential outcome of it (Ozcan and Breen, 2012).

1. Children anddivorce

Childhood experiences are important in determining adult characteristics (Kelly and Emery, 2003).Children from intact families do not exhibit psychopathology as children from divorced parents who have a wide range of experiences and outcomes related to the nature of divorce, coping skills and available support network both during the separation and after (Freeman, 2011). Divorce is a substantial stressor for good or bad on the psychological health of the children involved although not all divorces are harmful to the children. Children can have different experiences during and after divorce depending on their developmental stage as narrated by Freeman (2011). One particular area that the children are forced to restructure is their relationship with the parents, especially a non-custodial parent.

Some children tolerate this change well, whereas others exhibit maladaptive behaviors such as contact refusal. In this case, the child, the parent and the environment must be considered individually and within the context of one another. The environment refers to not only the physical space surrounding the relationship but also other individuals within the environment. Contact refusal needs to be dealt with and its causes identified because of the importance of the parent- child relationship and to aid in determining appropriate interventions (Freeman, 2011).

Parental divorce causes economic deprivation in childhood. The economic deprivation theory assumes that single parents have less time and money for their children. A child might adopt adult roles earlier than usual to contribute to family household in times of economic deprivation (Mc, Lanahan and Bumpass, 1988). If this is the case, many children are disturbed in their normal development such as hobbies and education. The findings to this point however remain inconclusive (Amato, 1993). Amato (1996) argues that single mothers often experience economic hardship because of the divorce, which translates into inability to provide additional resources such as educational games, computers, books or private lessons to their children. According to Kelly and Emery, (2003) children fear economic loss after divorce. This is because of limited economic resources. Custodial parents mostly mothers, have less income than two parent family. The children may be forced to change residence, school, friends and diet among other things. The children in divorcing family have a fear that if they lose one parent, they may lose the other. 20% of children have no contact with their fathers 2- 3 years after divorce. They may lose contact with extended family of either side. Their bed and meal – times and after school routine may change (Visher and Visher, 1997).

Children have excessive fear and worry which they are unable to express in an appropriate way. They may suffer from anger and vent it on innocent people as teachers or people in authority. They might fight with brothers, sisters or friends more than the usual spats associated with sibling rivalry. They may look sad because their parents are hurting each other or other children. They cannot stop thinking of their parents’ divorce. They cry over both little and big things, and do not laugh, joke or enjoy anything they are doing (Hughes,1996).

1. Possible solution todivorce

There exist possible solutions to divorce. Several writers have speculated on various options. Some of the possible solutions to divorce are as statedbelow:

1. Family Life Education(FLE)

John and Ehigie (2015) states that to maintain and sustain marital stability, family life education as a curricular intervention should be widely accepted in order to pass information and guidance to the youths for the development of right attitudes and values. Family life education instills in an individual orientation and acceptable sexual behaviors that emanates from the development of responsible and appropriate values and attitudes.

Scholars in the field of panacea perceive youth’s exposure to FLE as having unpleasant consequences and prevailing risky behavior. Its curricular intervention is based on the fact that majority of youths often resort to their peers, media and other sources for information and knowledge about family life in societies where sex talk is a taboo and sanction able. Since the traditional mode of checking youth’s moral rectitude seems to have broken down in the name of modernization and civilization, curriculum for secondary schools such as social studies whose

contents are heavily loaded with family life topics should be implemented to enable the youths acquire more accurate information through school instructions. Parents should educate their children on accepted family values in their community. This is aimed at reducing risky behavior as strategy for the high rate of divorce among youths and high school dropouts as a result of unplanned pregnancies (John and Ehigie, 2015).

1. Religion andSpirituality

Marriages in developed countries such as the United States and Europe are not doing well. More and more end up in divorce, more people are cohabiting and having children out of wedlock,and fewer are deciding tomarry.

This negative trend in marital health have been shown to adversely affect the future health of children, and may impact rates of alcohol and drug abuse, delinquency and later crime, as well as result in poorer health and increasing need for formal health services in later life (due to lack of a spouse) (Koenig et al., 2012).

According to Koenig et al. (2012), research published both before and after the year 2000 consistently shows that religion and spirituality involvement is related to greater stability and predicts greater stability over time. The exception based on limited evidence, is when Religious and Spiritual beliefs and involvement between husband and wife are greatly different, which may increase marital conflict and the risk of spouse abuse. This includes less divorce and separation, great commitment to the marriage, less spousal abuse (with exception as noted), and less infidelity. There are many reasons for this relationship, including the role that religion and spirituality plays in coping with stress, encouraging forgiveness and pro-social attitudes,providing support for the family, opposing the excessive use of alcohol and drugs, and discouraging separation and divorce (Koenig et al.,2012).

1. Guidance and counseling

According to Tolorunleke (2014), couples experience marital conflict under physical, social and economic causes. It has been discovered that marital conflicts are caused by the inability of the couples to fulfill each other’s conjugal needs and especially when it comes to the inability of the family heads to sufficiently provide both economically and socially to the family needs just to

mention but a few. Maisamari (2005) argued that the concept of guidance and counseling is complex and multi-dimensional in helping relationships cover various aspects of human development and endeavor, including marriage. Counseling in our present day generation is useful to all persons and at every stage of life.

Marriage counseling is a helping service, more of a specialized help given to married couples to give guidance and enable them settle the possible differences likely to be faced and work together to achieve their objectives for which they entered the union. A counseling psychologist therefore, works with couples experiencing marital conflicts should develop certain interventions strategies which will help couples to have a better understanding of themselves, threats to their union and take appropriate decisions that will help in resolving their differences (Maisamari, 2005).

Marital conflict can be prevented from resulting into partial or total collapse of homes when handled at an early stage and this will depend largely on the couple’s mutual understanding and handling. Marital success results from endurance, tolerance, patience and effective management of individual differences. Successful marriages as opined by Nadir (2003) are not those in which there has never been conflict but those in which conflicts have served useful purposes. Hence in order to foster marital stability and satisfaction, couples should learn to be fair, objective and realistic when dealing with their partner’s behavior. Couples should see their partner’s short comings as natural by-product of every human interrelationship where nobody can be perfect at all times and in allthings.

Melgosa and Melgosa (2005) argued that communication is the center of interpersonal relationships and also the manner in which messages are exchanged, resulting in satisfaction and happiness or alternatively causing hurt and resentment. Without effective communication between couples, there will be tension, sense of isolation, holding strongly to one’s opinions mistrust, less sharing and less intimacy. Marital conflicts can be prevented or managed in our homes when both partners send the right and decodable signals and are positively received by both partners in maritalrelationship.

According to Tolorunleke (2014), the recommendations for the control of marital conflicts are ample provisions for preventive, educative or rehabilitative counseling interventions through

marriage and sex guidance. There is need for premarital counseling for would-be couples to help them understand themselves and each other before marriage. They should be exposed to some of the problems that could lead to conflicts and how to manage them. Regular seminars and workshops should be organized for couples on issues that have to do with conflict resolution and marriage harmony, such seminars could be organized and conducted by government at various levels (National, State and local councils), religious bodies such as churches and mosques and non-governmental organization. Trainings should be provided for conflict resolution mediators or facilitators based on the comprehensive conflict resolution strategies. Train marital counselors and post them to social welfare offices and religious organizations. Institutions of learning should include in the curriculum a period for pre-marital counseling for those that have attained the age of maturity (Tolorunleke, 2014).

A study conducted by Shakerian et al. (2014) indicated that a higher level of sexual satisfaction can increase marital life quality and decrease couple’s relationship problems; this will also decrease marital instability and divorce rate. The present study underlines the fact that the couple’s sexual relationships including marital relationship quality, mutual trust and behavior control are significantly related to weak sexual function (sexual dysfunction) and sexual dissatisfaction. This means that any failing in these behaviors brings about a defective cycle which causes marital maladjustment anddisagreement.

1. TheoreticalFramework

This section deals with the theory that informed the study. The study was informed by the Social Exchange Theory as explained below.

1. Social ExchangeTheory

This study was guided by the Social Exchange Theory which points out that human beings will create and maintain relationships if they believe that rewards they derive from such relationships will exceed costs. Homans (1961) attempted to explain behavior as an outcome of interaction in which individuals’ trade or exchange resources broadly defined. Although Homans derived his statements of modern exchange theory from behavioral psychology and micro-economics analogous theories, the ideas are also found in anthropology (Levi- Strauss, 1949; Mauss, 1954)

and political science (Elster, 1986). While Social Exchange Theory best explains interactions between two persons, the theory has also been extended to integrate group processes, and applied to dyadic behaviors, such as friendship and marriage (Hatfield et al., 1979; Waller, 1937).

The five basic propositions of modern exchange theory were formally stated by Homans (1961). First, is that people are more likely to engage in a given activity if it has been rewarded in the past. Second, the more often you do things that reward another person for a given behavior, the more often the other will emit the activity. Third, if you do things that reward another person for a given behavior, that person will engage in that behavior more often if the reward that you give them is more valuable to them. Forth, the more often someone does things that reward you, the less valuable those rewards become for you in the future and fifth, we are likely to become angry if we seem to be treated unfairly.

The behaviorists’ model of operant conditioning is based on the utilitarian principle that individuals will seek to maximize their pleasure and to avoid or minimize their pain.

Individuals are expected to respond in predictable ways to rewards and punishments. Each interaction is an opportunity to exchange resources from which each participant attempts to receive resources of higher value than he or she has contributed orforegone.

Generally speaking, social psychologists refer to things exchanged as resources and resources can be anything tangible or intangible. Foa and Foa (1974) have identified six classes of exchange resources: love, status, information, money, goods and services. They further state that any resources falling into one of these six classes can be described with respect to one of two dimensions: particularism and concreteness. The particularism of resources is the extent to which its value depends on the particular person involved in the exchange. For example, an exchange of affection holds more value to a loved one than to a total stranger, while an exchange of money holds a more universal value. Concreteness refers to the degree to which the resource is tangible such as a raise in salary as opposed to an increase in one’s occupational status. Additionally, Foa and Foa (1974) found that particularistic resources tend to be exchanged for resources in the same class, for example, love for love rather than love for money but those less particularistic resources

are commonly exchanged for resources in different classes. For example, money is often exchanged for goods and services.