TOURISM INDUSTRY: AN IN-ROAD TO CULTURAL UPLIFTMENT
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE
Sociologist, Anthropologist and social psychologists hold different views and definitions of culture. In whichever way it is viewed or defined, when analyzed, maintained the elements of its original Latin meaning of soil cultivation.
Culture as defined by the Oxford advance learner’s dictionary is the advanced development of the human powers; development of the body, mind and spirit by training and experience. Or evidence of intellectual development (of Arts, Science etc). Or all the Arts, beliefs, social institutions etc. Exhibiting the characteristics of a community or race.
Similarly, Ayangaor (2003) defined culture as a pattern of life, ways that man has evolved in his attempts to understand, use and control his social and natural environment. The variety of cultures seen all over the world is the result of man's varied creative efforts in taming nature. It is, therefore what man adds to God- given nature. It is, therefore what really makes man-the-animal human.
Moreover, Taylor (2003) stated that Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts, morals customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.
Furthermore, Liman (2001) defined culture as the sum total of everything that contributes towards the formation of practical, physical and mental dimensions of a people's way of life. It is clear from this definition thus, that cultural considerations do not stop at social gatherings, dancing and singing in the same way like our forefathers did in the preceding centuries of the existence of black peoples in Africa south of the Sahara. Any meaningful consideration of culture must seriously include the economic, social and religious aspects of the society in question.
One could go on, with varied definitions as viewed by individuals. Though in whichever way, it is meaning the same thing. To the layman therefore, culture could be explained to him as he's or his ethnic group's mode of dressing, eating habit or types of food, traditional dance types, trading, etc. It’s His general way of life.
A more related definition to this thesis of culture is that by Malinowski (1945) which says culture is an organic unity with four dimensions of social organization, belief, material, outfit and language. This meaning views society as dynamic yet harmonious. The change is of transformation of the existing order, in terms of social, spiritual and material civilization from one type to another. It can be within the community (evolution) or through contact of different cultures (diffusion). Similarly, the uncontaminated native of any place does not exist.
Culture is there transmitted to generations through socialization as their behaviors internalized.
2.2 THE ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
The elements of culture as stated by Lee (1989) are the language, Signs, symbols, values, norms and social control of a society that are used generally all over.
Hofstede (1991) added that the elements of culture are the tools, artifacts, technology, language, religion, education, attitudes, values and social organization that make up a community.
Similarly, Brown (1995) viewed the elements as beliefs, attitudes, artifacts, architecture, stories, ceremonies and symbolic actions.
In a nut-shell, the elements of culture can be classified into:-
I.Material and non-material; and
II.Core and peripheral elements. John (1996).
2.2.1 Material And Non-Material Elements
Material culture refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture. These include homes, neighbourhoods, cities, schools, churches, synagogues, temples, mosques, offices, factories and plants, tools, means of production, goods and products, stores, and so forth. All of these physical aspects of a culture help to define its members' behaviours and perceptions.
Material culture includes all of the physical objects that people create and give meaning to clothing, schools, and books would be examples. An object only becomes part of culture after meaning has been given to it. A rock in a field has no meaning until it is used as a tool or to build a fence.
A material culture places emphasis on objects, material accomplishments; the acquisition of material wealth; skill and productivity in arts and crafts; technology; fine buildings and displays of material prosperity. John (1996).
Non-material culture refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about their culture, including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions. The non-material cultural concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and beliefs about God, worship, morals, and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how the culture responds to its religious topics, issues, and events.
When considering non-material culture, sociologists refer to several processes that a culture uses to shape its members' thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Four of the most important of these are symbols, language, values, and norms.
Non-material culture consists of thoughts and behaviour that people learn as part of the culture they live in. It includes politics, economics, language, rules, customs, family, religion or beliefs, values, and knowledge.
A non-material culture values 'abstract/intangible' things more highly than objects,
e.g. things such as ideas; the things of the mind; philosophy; metaphysics; 'spirituality'; values; beliefs; relationships between god and man; 'being', etc John (1996).
2.2.2 Core and Peripheral Elements
Core elements of culture are the Basic, or central values that integrate a culture and help distinguish it from others.
The core values of an organization are those values we hold which form the foundation on which we perform work and conduct ourselves. We have an entire universe of values, but some of them are so primary, so important to us that throughout the changes in society, government, politics, and technology they are the core values we will abide by. In an ever-changing world, core values are constant. Core values are not descriptions of the work we do or the strategies we employ to accomplish our mission. The values underlie our work, how interact with each other, and which strategies we employ to fulfill our mission. The core values are the basic elements of how we go about our work. They are the practices we use (or should be using) every day in everything we do; Beliefs, language, religion. John (1996).
Peripheral elements are the weak elements of culture that can be changed with time. Clothing and mode of dressing are good examples. In other words, they are the minor elements of culture that are nearly at the edge. It is through the peripheral elements of culture a culture is gradually penetrated thus influentially leading to loss of cultural heritage as acculturation or enculturation. John (1996).
Many part of the world. Literature on this subject matter especially from the developed world is emence. This chapter reviews literature on the impact of tourism on tourist attraction in Nigeria. It examines the impact of tourism on the tourist sites resource in Abeokuta the course of its development; the term tourist sites tourism has co-opted many terms in its meaning and which are used interchangeably with it.
2.3 Empirical Literature Review
Houghton Mifflin, (2000) define environment as the combination of external physical conditions that affect and influence the growth development, and survival of organisms. Wikipedia, 2007, defined “a tourist as a person who travels for a period of 24 hours or more in a place other that in which they usually reside whose purpose could be classified as leisure, business, family mission or meeting” while on the other hand, World Tourism Organization (1991) defined tourism as the activities of a person away from his normal environment for a period of at least 24 hours and not more than year for the purpose of, business and there TCMP Working Document (2001) reported that the development of coastal tourism can have a myriad of impacts on the coastal region and can, in turn, be impacted by non –tourism – related activities.
The environmental impact of coastal tourism can be numerous. This document reported on how Unplanned development of tourist related facilities and infrastructure can adversely affect the natural resource base that local populations depend on for their livelihoods. (TCMP op.cite). To address the situation, the report proposed appropriates a number and measures to be taken to protect the heritage sites. The measure includes the following; regulate the construction of tourist hotels along the coastal. By so doing, it can minimize the negative effects of tourism on the tourist attraction, on the other hand, the report recommend the need to put in place adequate waste deposit facilities. This goes hand in hand with the abuse to control the flow of tourist in order to ensure tourism activities does not surpass the limit of the acceptable use in the area. This is taken in order to protect the ecosystem of mangroves, coral reefs (MCP op.cite).
Kulindwa et al., (2005) argue that tourism relies heavily on the coastal zone not just for beach sites for development, but for food and as a leisure area for tourists. They mentioned some of tourism activities can affect the marine ecosystem direct though, for example, boat and anchor damage to coral reefs, and indirectly, for example, by increasing demands for cleared land for development, collection of shells for souvenirs, seafood, and mangroves poles and coral lime for construction. Extraction of living corals, backed in kilns to produce lime, has also contributed to coastal habitat degradation especially in Nigeria.
Luvanga & Shitundu, (2003) asserts that tourism activities can effect poverty alleviation positively or negatively. That means together with benefits, tourism effects may result in some cost or negative impact. The negative impacts mentioned are due to the encroachment heritage resources like coral reef damage and spoiling the beauty of the mountains. The study caution that exclusion of local people from access to resource intensified utilization of resources outside tourism areas and increased utilization of rocks. ODI (1999) also pointed out that increased tourism activities many people suffer from reduced access to natural resource or degradation of resources on which they depend. Also Larsen;(1998)suggested that apart from that ,the negative impact, resulted from encroaching of these heritage material needed to be assessed and addressed properly.
Coastal areas are endowed with rich resources such as mangroves, Olumo rock. Monile, (2008) did a study on the relationship between population, environment and development. He argues that terrestrial and marine resources face severe environmental pressure caused by anthropogenic factors such as fast population growth and uncontrolled expansion of the west city, utilization of natural resources like stones and sand for building houses and hotels end up destroying the environment. The environmental pressure is also caused by lack of well coordinated land and water plans and ignorance of proper utilization of these resources among stakeholders.
Also he mentioned involvement of local people and nongovernmental organization Leader (1997), comments that the Impact can result from the activities of tourists of and from the construction and operation of tourist facilities and service they also argue that impacts arising from tourism are difficult to assess, partly because of their diversity in range and in type. Impacts may be short or long – term, direct or indirect, local, national or global, positive or negative (Hunter and Green, 1995