IMPACT OF TRAFFIC CONGESTION ON WORKERS' PRODUCTIVITY
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Conceptual Review
2.1.1 Employee performance
Refers to the output in terms of quantity and quality that helps the organisation to realise its set objectives. In other words performance can be measured by traits, behaviors' and/or outcomes (Tella, 2007). Employee performance management is a process that organisations use to ensure their employees are contributing to producing a high quality product or service. Employee performance management encourages the employee to get involved in the planning for the company, and therefore anticipates by having a role in the process the employee will be motivated to perform at a high level (Tella, 2007).
Business dictionary.com linked the job related activities expected of a worker and how well those activities were executed. Many business personnel directors assess the employee performance of each staff member on an annual or quarterly basis in order to help them identify suggested areas for improvement.
It associated performance with quantity of output, quality of output, timeliness of output, presence / attendance on the job, efficiency of the work completed and effectiveness of work completed (Mathis & Jackson, 2009).
For the purpose of this research, employee performance is the successful completion of tasks by a selected individual or individuals, as set and measured by a supervisor or organisation, to pre-defined acceptable standards while efficiently and effectively utilising available resources within a changing environment. This is the same explanations as adopted from Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2007) of putting performance as the standard to which someone does something such as a job or examination and Business Dictionary (2014: online), of highlighting performance as the accomplishment of a given task measured against pre-set standards of accuracy, completeness, cost and speed.
Apart from the above definition employee Performance is also defined in terms of effectiveness (mission fulfillment), efficiency, ongoing relevance (the extent to which the organisation adapts to changing conditions in its environment), and financial viability. The framework implies that certain contextual forces drive performance: the capacities of an organisation, forces in its external environment, and the internal motivation of the organisation.
Organisational culture provides a framework with respect to the behavior of employees in their workplace. Depending on the type of culture that is created in an organisation, it can have a positive or negative effect on employee performance. An organisational culture where employees are considered an integral part of the growth process of the organisation fosters employee commitment towards the organisation. They align their goals and objectives with those of the organisation and feel responsible for the overall well-being of the organisation. As their efforts are in turn appreciated by the management and suitably rewarded, they have immense job satisfaction. In such organisational cultures, the employees are committed to achieving their goals and thus have a positive effect on the overall performance of the organisation.
In organisations where managers are not facilitators but taskmasters, employees live with fear and distrust and work is nothing but a dreary chore. Since they are not involved in the overall organisational goals, they do not understand the implications of their tasks and hence may not be committed to achieving them. An organisation where there is no cooperation between different departments ends up having employees working in silos or working towards undermining the efforts of the other departments which is detrimental to the overall health of the organisation.
2.2 Employee satisfaction
Is the terminology used to describe whether employees are happy, contended and fulfilling their desires and needs at work. Many measures support that employee satisfaction is a factor in employee motivation, employee goal achievement and positive employee morale in the work place (Heath field, 2014).
Bhatti et al (2007) described employee satisfaction as a measure of how happy workers are with their job and working environment. Many factors affect organisational effectiveness and one of them is the employee satisfaction. Effective organisations should have a culture that encourages the employee satisfaction. There is no limit for the employees to reach the full satisfaction and it may vary from employee to employee. Sometimes they need to change their behaviours in order to execute their duties more effectively to gain greater job satisfaction (Miller, 2006).
2.3 Road traffic congestion
Traffic congestion alludes to the incremental expenses coming about because of obstruction among street clients (Transport Demand Management Encyclopedia, 2008). In a comparative manner, Weisbrod, (2010) characterises Traffic Congestion as a state of activity deferral (that is; when movement stream is wretchedly underneath sensible speed) in light of the fact that the quantity of vehicles attempting to utilise a street surpasses the plan limit of the activity arrange.
It is generally seen as a developing wonder in numerous urban territories on the grounds that the general volume of vehicular movement in numerous zones keeps on becoming quicker than the general limit of the transportation system. The subsequent movement moderate downs can have an extensive variety of contrary effects on individuals and on the business economy, including impacts on air quality (because of extra vehicle outflows), personal satisfaction (because of individual time postponements), and business action (because of the extra expenses and lessened administration ranges for workforce, provider and client markets). (Weisbrod el at 2002)
Congestion emerges out of the conjunction of two elements. The first is that each procedure has a limited limit. The second is that each procedure has a stochastic character. That is, there is some level of haphazardness in both the requests set on a procedure to benefit those requests (Marvin, 1979). At whatever point the aggregate info rate is more prominent than the yield connect limit, blockage happens.
At the point when the system gets to be distinctly congested, the line lengths may turn out to be vast in a brief span, bringing about support floods and cell misfortune. Blockage control is hence important to guarantee that clients get the arranged Quality of Service (QoS) (Active Traffic Management, 2005). The blockage emerging from the relationship between the request put on a street by vehicles and the accessible street limit impacts specifically or by implication on efficiency of laborers ensnared in the activity blockage.
Congestion is generally simple to perceive when streets are observably loaded with autos, trucks, and transports. Walkways loaded with people on foot. Congestion, both in observation and reality, impacts the development of individuals and cargo in most urban territories and is profoundly attached to our history of abnormal state of availability and portability (Downs, 2004).
Blockage, as per Ogunsanya (1984), can be depicted as a circumstance, which emerges therefore of numerous vehicles attempting to utilise a similar street in the meantime along spatial and fleeting measurements. Some say that activity clog has been around since old Rome (Downs, 2004), everybody loathes movement blockage, and however it continues deteriorating, regardless of endeavored cures.
This abuses hypothetical saying that all issues have arrangements over the long haul. Rising activity clog is an unpreventable condition in substantial and developing metropolitan ranges over the world. Top hour clog is a characteristic consequence of the way present day social orders work, and the powerful urges of their occupants to seek after objectives that unavoidably over-burden existing streets and travel frameworks consistently (David and Gregory, 2010).
The issue of activity congestion is that an excessive number of individuals need to move in the meantime every day. This is predicated on effective operation of both the economy and the educational system which requires that individuals work, go to class, and run errands amid those hours so they can collaborate with each other. The circumstance turns out to be all the more devastating and unalterable because of the sensitive space it possesses in the national economy and its urgent part in the public eye. Surely, it has turned out to resemble disease spreading its teeth in each major urban locale on the planet.
2.3.1 Effect of traffic congestion
There is proof that business sees traffic congestion as bringing about a major issue. The conviction is that it causes a huge cost burden. A study from the United Kingdom found that traffic congestion was seen as the most imperative component prone to influence expenses and administration in the following three years (Fernie, and Marchant, 2000). A substantial number of transport financial aspects concentrate on the time segment of driving costs (Small and Verhoef, 2007).
Appraisals of the time segment of driving expenses change by a substantial edge, yet concentrates tend to find that the estimation of travel time is 20% to 100% of the hourly (gross) wage (Small, 1992). De Borger and Fosgerau (2008) find solid reference-point impacts in expressed inclination information and propose an approach to rectify for this impact. Uncovered inclination concentrates tend to discover significantly higher qualities than expressed inclination considers.
In spite of the fact that the time segment is an essential piece of the driving costs, alternate parts are not irrelevant, and may hence not be overlooked (Cogan, 1981). For workers, the money related expenses are considered 30% to 40% of the time costs (e.g., Fujita, 1989; Small, 1992). Besides, specialists may fluctuate the speed of their drive through their decision of travel mode, so the share of the time costs as a major aspect of the aggregate driving expenses is endogenously decided.
As a result, data on the expenses of the time part is not really useful about the aggregate driving expenses. For all travel modes with the exception of auto utilise, the minor money related expenses are anything but difficult to decide. For non-mechanised transport (bicycling, strolling), the minor money related expenses are (near) zero; for open transport (prepare, transport, metro), the minimal fiscal expenses can be gotten from the cost paid for the ticket. For auto clients, in any case, who are the dominant part of suburbanites, the negligible money related expenses related with driving are not all that straight forward to decide.
These expenses of auto utilise contain not just the variable expenses of auto utilise (fuel, deterioration of the auto because of its utilisation), additionally costs that are identified with the responsibility for auto (intrigue, protection, and so on). The last cost part is oftentimes regarded as settled, and it is subsequently expected not to influence laborers' negligible expenses of travel.
This might be contended to be an applicable suspicion in the United States, where auto accessibility is high and all laborers drive via auto. Outside the United States, the extent of laborers who drive via auto is much littler. For instance in the Netherlands, around half of specialists drive via auto. Auto proprietorship choices will oftentimes rely on upon the length of the driving separation, which constitutes around 33% of an auto's mileage (DeJong, 1990).
Thus, despite the fact that regarding auto proprietorship costs as settled may bode well as for some travel choices, these expenses are unmistakably not settled as for driving. Specialists' negligible driving expenses can be inferred in different ways. One technique, well known to work market analysts, is to utilise the tradeoff amongst wages and the length of the drive, utilising hedonic wage models, as created by Rosen (1986).
In any case, such a technique has various inconveniences, as it depends on the (certain) suspicion that laborers have full data about accessibility of employments and don't need to look for occupations (Hwang et al., 1998; Gronberg and Reed, 1994). Various reviews have demonstrated that evaluations of valuation of employment characteristics, for example, driving time, are likely truly descending one-sided if hedonic wage models are utilised (Van Ommeren et al., 2000; Villanueva, 2007).
2.4 Employee performance theory
A major concern of organisations centers on the performance of employees (Agarwala, 2001). Competition has become a way of life for most organisations. Organisations are in consistent war of rivalry endeavoring to accomplish the supposed reasonable upper hand (that is performing superior to the adversaries inside the same particular industry). To survive and be effective; it is imperative for associations to stay focused.
Since HR are a novel and significant wellspring of upper hand, associations must guarantee the best and productive usage of these assets; just in light of the fact that a definitive wellspring of significant worth is individuals. It is human asset that makes an incentive in any focused associations. Subsequently the accomplishment of any association fixates on the execution of representatives (Agarwala, 2011).
Execution alludes to work related exercises expected of a laborer and how well those exercises were executed i.e. what a representative does or does not do at work. The execution develop is generally demonstrated by things, for example, viability, i.e. on the off chance that the specialists meets his/her every day work destinations, productivity, i.e. on the off chance that the specialists utilises the least conceivable assets to meet his/her goals, improvement, i.e. on the off chance that the laborer is creating in his/her ability to meet future open doors and difficulties, fulfillment, of all members–proprietors and speculators, clients, society, other associates, and association individuals, development, for items and procedures, and nature of work.
Execution related factors and develop has been planned by Allen and Meyer (1990). At the point when representatives don't perform as indicated by desires, or when they fail to meet expectations; it is troublesome for a firm to accomplish its vital objectives and goals.
Under such conditions, the firm won't have the capacity to accomplish an upper hand.
2.4.1 Employees’ performance indicators
Meeting Goals/ work target, Measure whether employees met pre-established goals during the assessment period. For example, an employee might have specific goals such as completing an annual report, developing a new filing system or learning a new software programme. You also may have goals that are more subjective in nature, such as improving attitude or developing more effective time management skills.
Employee Teamwork, Based on the view of Cohen and Bailey (1999), a employee team is defined as a collection of individuals who are interdependent in the tasks they perform and who share responsibility for the outcomes. Teamwork is the process of working collaboratively with a group of people, in order to achieve a goal.
Teamwork is often a crucial part of a business, as it is often necessary for colleagues to work well together, trying their best in any circumstance. Teamwork means that people will try to cooperate, using their individual skills and providing constructive feedback, despite any personal conflict between individuals (Jones, 2008)
Teamwork is an essential component of many positions. Rate your staffer on his participation in group initiatives. You might find it worthwhile to seek feedback from colleagues when making this assessment, to learn about co-worker perceptions about contributions, sharing the work load, contributing ideas and meeting established performance parameters.
Career Development, Referring to Armstrong (2001) career development is of great importance to both the individual employee and the organisation. This is so because there is interaction between the organisation for which he/she works and the development of the organisation through the employee’s career. An employee develops his/her career through a continuous acquisition of managerial or professional skills and experience which may bring about rewards and promotion.
Graham and Bennett (1995) agree with this and contend that career development involves higher status and responsibilities which can take place in one organisation or through movement between organisations or a combination of both. Employees could move from one institution to another not necessarily in the same career, but probably from one field to another or from one level to another, (Robbins, 2010).
In today’s competitive market, successful organisation regardless of size need employees who have the necessary knowledge and skills to make an effective contribution as drivers towards achieving a competitive edge in the organisation. Therefore, vision of a competent, confident, loyal and valued workforce delivering high quality, person-centered services is rightly ambitious.
Armstrong (2001) agrees and points out, that today’s dynamic environment requires continuous professional and managerial development. Stakeholders should put in place, if not already available, a range of structures and processes to support the development of the workforce they need now and for the future.
According to Armstrong (2001) career development is of great importance to both the individual employee and the organisation. This is so because there is interaction between the organisation for which he/she works and the development of the organisation through the employee’s career. An employee develops his/her career through a continuous acquisition of managerial or professional skills and experience which may bring about rewards and promotion.
Decision Making, If you’re assessing an employee in a decision-making position, rank how he fares in this area by evaluating major or difficult decisions that have been made during the previous assessment period. Consider whether an employee regularly approaches management or colleagues for assistance in choosing a path to pursue, or if she is confident and makes well-educated decisions on her own.
Work Commitment and Communication, Job commitment is the feeling of responsibility that a person has towards the mission and goals of an organisation. Commitment is complex and a multi-faceted construct, and can take different forms. Work commitment has been defined as the relative importance between work and one’s self (Loscoco, 1989). Work commitment is seen as a person's adherence to work ethic, commitment to a career/profession, job involvement, and organisational commitment (Morrow, 1993).
Individuals can feel committed to an organisation, top management, supervisors, or a particular work group. Commitment has been examined with regard to "career, union and profession" (Darolia, Darolia, & Kumari, 2010). Studies showing instances of high work commitment have also proven to highly relate to organisational performance.
It is the second most commonly studied job attitude in I/O psychology for this reason (PSUWC, 2014). It affects all organisations at some level and enables companies to evaluate issues like turnover during times of varying economic stability.
All of these attitudes interact to shape the conceptual framework of each individual's work commitment. The following information analyses these attitudes as well as other organisational concepts, research, and real world applications.
The success or failure of an organisation is closely related to the effort and motivation of its employees. The motivation of employees is often the product of their commitment towards their job or career. Work commitment is an extremely important topic for organisations to understand. The level to which an employee engages in his or her work (job involvement), commits to and believes in the organisation's goals and purpose (organisational commitment), desires to work (work ethic), and commits to a specific career or profession can all have an impact on an organisation.
In today's economy, where organisations are expected to do more with less resources (i.e., people and money), it is extremely important for organisations to retain their highly productive employees. "Employees who are engaged in their work and committed to their organisations give companies crucial competitive advantages - including higher productivity and lower employee turnover" (Vance, 2006, p.1).
Communication is one of the best ways to keep employees engaged. It is important that employees are listened to, valued, and encouraged to provide feedback. In turn employers must respect employee’s opinions and follow-up on commitments and responsibilities they have promised employees. By keeping channels of communication open, employers and employees can benefit from mutual trust and respect. In addition it is imperative that communication be across all levels of the organisation, from top management down as well as internally and externally (Stirling J. 2008).
In short, the importance of work commitment is dependent upon the organisation itself. If the organisation wants to become competitive and grow, as in the example above, it will place a great deal of importance on the level to which employees are engaged in their jobs and how committed the employees are to the organisation.
On the other hand, if the organisation is content with high turnover, low-producing employees, and high absenteeism, they should not be concerned with work commitment. However, the leaders of that organisation must realise that, at some point in its organisational life cycle, the organisation will undoubtedly have to compete with an organisation that does place importance on work commitment, which could end up being detrimental to the continued existence of the organisation.
2.5 Empirical literature
Traffic congestion is another marvel and as later as amidst the 1990s clog was not an issue at all aside from a couple of streets in the downtown areas. Traffic congestion is turning out to be more awful on the yearly premise because of the expansion Dar es Salaam populace, number of autos, quick physical improvement Central Business District and increment in social and financial exercises in the City. The Government and City specialists are endeavoring to take care of the issue by expanding the limit of streets and enhancing open transport. It gives the idea that this approach has not completely conveyed the wanted consequences of limiting congestion. One of the contributing elements for poor execution is none usage of techniques for controlling activity clog proposed in physical arrangements. For instance the 1979 Dar es Salaam all-inclusive strategy had great systems for diminishing future movement blockage and in the event that they were executed activity clog in the City couldn't be as awful as it is at this point.
Traffic congestion is an issue in numerous urban communities of the World, both in created and creating nations and it is anticipated that it will deteriorate later on (Jain et al., 2012; Cambridge Systematics Inc. and Texas Transport Institute, 2004). As per Organisation of Engineers (1989) traffic congestion can be seen from two primary restricting points of view.
The primary point of view is that it can be considered is a marker of financial development and the length of we live in urban territories it is digging in for the long haul with us. The second point of view is that clog as a marker of crumbling of urban life.
Urban activity clog can be contributed by various components incorporating quick increment in urban populace, financial development, increment in business openings, increment in number of autos and number of individuals utilising autos, low limit of transport framework, street format, under interest in street foundation, poor movement administration, lack of road stopping, flag and hardware disappointment, non adherence to movement directions, poor urban arranging or poor urban advancement control, fast extension of city limits, poor open transport, expanded utilisation of private autos, auto crashes, extraordinary occasions social affairs, street works, and terrible climate (Institute of Transport Engineers, 1989; Remi et al., 2009; Aderamo, 2012; Mahmud et al., 2012; Agyemang, 2009; International Association of Public Transport (UITP, 2003); Cambridge Systematics Inc. also, Texas Transport Institute, 2004; London Assembly Transport Committee, 2004).
The effects of traffic congestion can be sorted into four fundamental gatherings of natural, prudent, wellbeing and social (Mahmud et al., 2012; Weisbrod et al., 2003; Remi et al., 2009; Levy et al., 2010). The nature, degree and seriousness of the effects contrast starting with one city then onto the next depending in addition to other things the city measure, street limit and street design, spatial appropriation of land uses, methods of open and private transport frameworks and travel designs. The general natural effects because of traffic congestion incorporate air and commotion contamination and visual interruption. Air contamination prompts to increment of Greenhouse Gasses (GHG) in the environment therefore adding to environmental change. The financial effects are increment in fuel utilisation, which prompts to higher transportation costs, wastage of working time and deferral in administration conveyance.
Wellbeing impacts, which fundamentally happen because of stretched out introduction to dirtied air and superfluously long stretches spent on streets, are mental anxiety, tiredness, and cerebral pain. Social effects incorporate decrease in personal satisfaction as reflected by diminishment in individual wages because of expanded transportation costs, loss of time that could have generally been spent on social exercises.
It is contended that activity clog in urban zones can't be totally killed yet must be limited to satisfactory level and there is no single arrangement (Institute of Transport Engineers, 1989; OECD, 2007). With a specific end goal to limit movement clog in urban zones three primary methodologies might be utilised. These are firstly, managing supply side that is taking activities that prompt to increment in limit and productivity of transportation framework. Besides, managing request side that is taking activities that prompt to decrease in the utilisation of autos in urban zones. At last, physical arranging which impacts arrive utilise and framework dispersion in urban regions. The ordinary supply activities for controlling movement blockage are isolated into two principle zones of including new offices and enhancing the administration of existing offices.
The new transportation offices that can be included incorporate building new streets, travel offices, adding paths to existing streets, developing bridges and underpasses at clog convergences and building ring streets. Enhanced movement administration can be accomplished through the presentation of one way avenues, turn denials and reversible paths, enhancing timing of the activity signals, arrangement of pre trek movement data, speedier reactions to car crashes and tending to exceptional occasions and street works that cause automobile overloads. Request administration can be achieved by arrangement of top notch open transport that can diminish the utilisation of private autos, stopping limitations, ride sharing or auto pooling, incline metering, clog charge, advancing cycling and strolling and presentation of adaptable working hours.
Physical arranging additionally known by an assortment of different names including spatial arranging, town arranging, urban and provincial arranging or urban arranging manages spatial course of action of land uses in human settlements.
The fundamental point of physical arranging is to bring deliberate and feasible improvement of human settlements. This is accomplished by creating and executing an assortment of spatial plans in urban zones, regularly known as ace or basic or land utilise plans. The end-all strategies do show the courses of action of various land utilises including for instance for private, business, institutional, open ranges, recreational and line foundations. The line framework incorporates transportation offices regarding diverse sorts of streets, railroads, water supply, vitality and media transmission frameworks, strong and squander administration.
As indicated by Institute of Transport Engineers, (1989), and Aderamo (2012) physical arranging and transportation arranging are firmly connected together. This is because of the way that the way arrive utilisations are masterminded will influence trip era, travel examples and movement volumes which thusly will affect on the transportation offices that are given to openness to various parts of the urban ranges. Accordingly the travel design including activity blockage inside and past urban limits is extraordinarily affected via arrive employments. In the meantime the transportation framework can impact the land utilises inside and outside the urban limits.
The review by Ogbomomso (2015) inspected the cost of traffic congestion on laborers' efficiency in Lagos, Nigeria. The review embraced multi-organise testing strategy. Transport hallways inclined to traffic congestion were purposively chosen. Cited organisations along the chose passageways were stratified and laborers in the chose organisations were haphazardly chosen. An aggregate of 510 respondents were haphazardly tested from the 5100 laborers of six (6) chose organisations to evoke data on time spent in traffic congestion, expenses of movement clog and impact of activity blockage on their execution.
Multivariate Regression was utilised to break down the impact of cost, time and driving separation (free factors) on the execution of specialists (ward variable). Consequence of MANOVA uncovered that 15.6 for each penny of variety in laborers' efficiency is represented by traffic congestion. In view of the Multivariate Regression, it was found that normal separation secured (km) ( F = 3.39, p = 0.0015), time (min) F = 12.51 p = 0.0000 ) and costs (N) ( F = 31.79, p = 0.0000) are fundamentally identified with activity clog. Assessments of expenses of activity clog on laborers' efficiency demonstrated that delay in the time section of a hour and a half is noteworthy ( p< 0.05 ) yet contrarily identified with specialists' profitability. The review presumed that there is reverse relationship between movement blockage and laborers' profitability, inferring that expansion in the rate of traffic congestion will prompt to low efficiency.
Subsequently, the review prescribed that legislature ought to attempt to impact approaches that are fit for decreasing activity clog on the streets so as to enhance free stream of movement that would altogether enhance the profitability of specialists in both people in general and private divisions of the national economy.
A review by Kiunsi (2012) in Dar es Salaam Tanzania, inspected traffic congestion as one of the significant issues confronting Dar es Salaam City and is credited by various elements including quick populace increment, deficient and poor street foundation, city structure, fast increment in number of autos and absence of physical arrangement to control city advancement. The city is now executing various systems keeping in mind the end goal to limit activity clog.
Be that as it may, a significant number of the methodologies are concentrating on enhancing the limit of streets as far as expanding number of paths, proposing new bridges and underpasses at the fundamental street convergences and enhancing open transport. These techniques can't completely beat the blockage issues in Dar es Salaam all alone unless endeavors are made to redistribute administrations and group framework.
The last can be accomplished through physical arranging, which has the capability of impacting outing era and travel examples and activity volume in particular streets. Along these lines to limit movement clog in the Dar es Salaam both procedures for enhancing street limit, open transport and physical arranging arrangements should be connected together.