REVIEW OF LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.
Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:
Conceptual Framework
Theoretical Framework
Empirical Review
2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Concept of Fire
According to the America Heritage Dictionary (2nd edition) fire is a rapid, persistent chemical reaction that releases heat and light, especially the exothermic combination of a combustible with oxygen. Wahab, (2015) opined that fire is a rapid combination of heat, fuel and oxygen at their appropriate proportion or it is the interaction of combustible substances in oxygen at appropriate concentration or it is the interaction of combustible substance in oxygen at appropriate temperature resulting in the production of flame. From the definition above, we can deduce that three elements must be present for fire to occur and these elements include; fuel heat and oxygen. These elements are termed elements of combustion and it is represented below diagrammatically as the triangle of combustion (Wahab, 2015).
Fire can further be described as the phenomenon that occurs whenever a combustible material comes into contact with oxygen and emits out light, heat and smoke. It is the chemical reaction that occurs when heat stored in a flammable item is released together with light and smoke (Ugwu, 2017). Fire is one of man's greatest findings but can also be a source of hazard. The numerous benefit of fire often suppresses the massive destructive ability it possess which threatens a nation’s delicate economy. Fire outbreak is one of the worlds’ most rampant and damaging disasters and has been a serious and recurring issue especially in the developing countries. This disastrous impact of fire to the environment and economy has attracted attention to strategies to prevent, control or eliminate it when it occurs. In Europe, it was estimated that 8 out of 1,000,000 people are killed annually and more are hospitalized due to fire incidence (Muindi, 2014). The collapse of the world trade centre and death of over 2,000 people was as a result of the fiery fire that engulfed the building (Ugwu, 2017). Over the years and in recent times, cases of fatal fire disaster have been reported in different parts of Nigeria.
Fire is a rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of heat and light in varying intensities. Fire is believed to be based on four elements being present: fuel, ignition source, oxidizing agent (usually atmospheric oxygen), and mechanism of the reaction. The most common fuels that cause fires include flammable gases used for cooking in homes, furniture, clothing, solvents used in our daily activities, such as kerosene and gasoline, and combustible dusts, such as toners used in offices and starch sold in markets. A list of combustible dusts is presented in Occu- pational Safety and Health Administration’s combustible dust guide (Nadzim, N., & Taib, 2020). Fires can even occur for a mixture of flammable gas and combustible dust even if the lower flammability limit of the mix- tures is below the flammability limit of the individual substances (Osaro, 2018). The most common ignition sources include cooking/heating equipment, intentional electrical open flames or embers, appliances, tools or air conditioning, other heat sources, as well as natural causes, such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. When fire occurs, there are several contributing factors that help it to spread easily and become more destructive. Some of these fac- tors include wood shingle/thatched roofs, high wind, congested access, inadequate water distribution system, lack of exposure protection, inadequate public protection (i.e., fire department in- adequacies), unusual hot or dry weather conditions, delay in dis- covery of fire, inadequate personal fire protection, and delay in raising the fire alarm (Osaro, 2018).
Classes of Fire
According to Newton (2015) there are four (4) major classes of fire and they include;
Class A fire: These are fire involving solid materials normally of an organic nature e.g. wood, paper, textile, furniture etc. This type of fire normally leaves residues.
Class B fire: These are fire involving all flammable liquids or liquefiable solids e.g. petrol, kerosene, cooking oil, paints etc.
Class C fire: These are fire involving all liquefiable combustible gases e.g. cooking gas, hydrogen sulphide, methane, etc.
Class D fire: They include all fires involving metals like magnesium, potassium, copper, aluminum, sodium, etc.
Why Fire is perceived harmful
Uncontrolled fire has become one of the main environmental issues facing the global community, and in fact, the most important global disturbances, considering the observed effects it has on land area and biodiversity. At global level an estimated 150 to 250 million ha (Mha) of the recorded 1.8 billion ha of tropical forests are affected by wildfire annually. Many mature and immature forest trees are killed by high intensity fires annually. In the Amazonian forests for instance, wildfire has been reported to cause high mortality in many useful species with the rate ranging between 36-96%. Consequently fires affect timber supplies from which income and other livelihood needs are generated for the majority of people, particularly, in developing countries (Lawal, Chandra, & Bichi, 2018).
In Ghana, (one of the leading exporters of timber in Africa), for instance, wildfires caused more than 4 million m3 of exportable timber in losses between1982-1983. An estimated annual loss of 3% of GDP was recorded for the past two decades, due to wild fires. In South East Asia, the loss of tropical forest resources was much higher. Areas (in Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, Irian Jaya and Sumatra) in Indonesia which were the most affected in Asia lost about 9.5 Mha of land to fires, out of which about 4.6 Mha (49%) was forested. For the same period, Brazil lost an estimated 3.3 Mha hectares of land of which 1.5 million was rainforest in northern Amazonia alone. In Mexico and Central America a further 1.5 million hectares was burnt affecting biodiversity and ecosystem processes. During the same period, over 5 million hectares of temperate forests were also affected in the United States and Canada and 2 million hectares in Russia (Nadzim, & Taib, 2020).
In many cases, wildfire caused heavy financial losses in terms of people loosing their homes and property. Wildfires also pollute the air with smoke that causes health hazards and making aerial communication difficult. Also the carbon emitted during wild fires also contributes significantly to the build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Further more the destruction of forests by wild fires terminates the role of forests to act as sinks for carbon.
Obviously, the harmful effect of wildfire is very clear and explains why the public generally have the opinion, that fires are always harmful to nature. However, for some of us, fire is a necessary ”evil”. Thus, despite the destructiveness of fire, it can be a legitimate land management tool, if carefully timed and used (Nadzim, & Taib, 2020)”. As a result, FAO, (2016) projects the idea that there is good fire and should be advocated and supported”. However, the dilemma faced by particularly the public, rural communities, is that fire can be very destructive and at the same time, act as a useful tool in the enhancement of ecosystems. This section of the book presents a review of the role of fire in global ecosystems. This review, seeks to, particularly, highlight the importance in the application of the ”right kind of fire” by local people, to enhance the ecosystem and their livelihoods.
Fire as Conservation and Livelihood issue
According to Venkatesh, Puneet, & Muhammad, (2019), fires are increasingly damaging the world’s forests, impacting ecosystem processes and shaping landscapes. Today, among globally important ecoregions for conservation, 84% of the area assessed is at risk from altered fire regimes (judged to be degraded” or ”very degraded”) and 46% of the area assessed is classified as fire-dependent/influenced, 36% as fire-sensitive, and 18% as fire-independent.
In recent years interests to adopt comprehensive fire management programmes and to consider fire as a conservation issue has grown internationally. The reasons for the growth in interest are two-fold. Firstly, there is the recognition of the increase in occurrence of extremely sever fires and excessive application of fire in land use system, which threaten natural resources and livelihood systems. Secondly, the recognition of how some of the current approaches to fire prevention are out of step. Both issues have led, among others, to the emergence of the concept of integrated forest fire management (IFFM) during the recent years.
Myers defined IFFM as the integration of science and society with fire management technologies at multiple levels. This implies an integrated approach to forest fire management where fire programs are not limited to the traditional efforts of fire prevention and fire suppression only, but also embraces the use of prescribed or managed fire as a tool, community involvement, and law enforcement. This also imply integrating fire-related issues with other ecological (e.g. climate change) socio-economic (e.g. culture), and technical factors and forest management practices during conservation and land use planning efforts (Venkatesh, Puneet, & Muhammad, 2019).
Fire in Ecosystems
In discussing and addressing fire as a conservation issue, it is important to recognize and understand the different roles that fire plays in different ecosystems. The Nature Conservancy (TNC), in its preliminary global assessment of fire as a conservation threat, identified three broad categories of vegetation responses to fire: fire-dependent, fire-sensitive and fire-independent. That report focused on the predominant fire effect at the level of biome and ecoregion, recognizing that within ecoregions there can be a variety of ecosystems and habitats that have responses different from the predominant effect (USFA 2016). Because this report focuses on potential management actions to fire within conservation areas where multiple responses may be manifested, a fourth category is included: fire- influenced. These ecosystems may be linked hierarchically to fire-dependent and fire-sensitive ecosystems because they are frequently found as transitions between them. All ecosystems or native vegetation types do not fit perfectly into each of these categories, but the groupings provide a means of illustrating and discussing the threats and conservation needs and opportunities associated with fire in diverse vegetation types and how management actions may vary among them (USFA 2016).
Causes of Fire outbreak
Premium Times Newspaper Tuesday September 29th 2015 spotted some of the causes of fire outbreaks which includes:
smoking in bed or beside flammable substances.
re-ignite cigarettes not properly extinguished.
faulty wiring and reckless use of electrical appliances.
children playing with matches.
careless use of candles.
storage of hazardous chemicals and other flammable materials around residential premises.
the use of cheap and defective equipment.
pouring fuel or kerosene in generators or lamps they are still on.
falling asleep while cooking etc (USFA 2016).
Global Perspective of Fire Outbreak
Fire has been an important factor in the dynamics of the Earth's climate and in the development of biomes since its widespread occurrence began million years ago (Scott, 2000; He, et al., 2015). In fire-prone ecosystems, humans have always coexisted with fire in the landscape, and its use can be seen as the first anthropogenic tool that has affected ecosystem dynamics beyond the very local scale (Santin, et al., 2015). Whether as open biomass burning or as the relatively recent practice of combusting fossil fuels in engines and power stations, fire has been a key factor in the rise of human societies (Scott, et al., 2014; Gowelett, 2016). Fire in the landscape (commonly termed wildfire, wild land fire or landscape fire) has been typically considered as ‘bad’ and the focus on the whole has been on eliminating or at least containing it (Raftoyannis, et al., 2014, Kyriazopoulos, et al., 2013). The ‘command and control’ attitude of most Western societies neglects the fundamental role that fire has in sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem health (North, et al., 2015., Moritz, et al., 2014). Until very recently, governments refused to present fire as a potential negative ecological factor out of concern that any admission of a negative role for fire would sound contradictory (Donovan, et al., 2007). Nowadays, the perception of fire in Western communities living in high fire risk areas is slowly moving towards the recognition of fire as a valuable natural factor (McCaffrey, et al., 2015). However, in many other regions fire is still perceived by the whole society as a natural hazard with only negative implications. This Western perception of fire currently dominates the world. In this same issue, other contributions discuss societies which have long coexisted with fire and continue to do so sustainably, such as the aboriginal people of the Western Desert of Australia (Bliege, et al., 2015) or indigenous communities in Venezuela, Brazil and Guyana (Mistry, et al., 2016). Unlike other natural hazards such as earthquakes or volcanic eruptions, fire is perceived as an avoidable risk and enormous resources are directed towards fire suppression efforts, particularly in the more developed world (Donovan, et al., 2007). Yet the now widely acknowledged consequence that fire suppression often comes at the cost of an increased risk of more severe or extensive future fire within fire-prone landscapes (Stephens, et al., 2014) has to date only led to limited changes to fire suppression practice in most regions (North, et al., 2015). Human losses aside, the direct financial costs, such as the damage to homes and other infrastructures, often dominate the perception of the fire impacts and an increase in these is often highlighted in the media (González, et al., 2012, Futuro, 2014). The annual global values (adjusted to 2015 US$ value) ranging from US$4.6 million to US$12 318 million (annual average US$2677 million), showing no apparent temporal trend. These estimates of losses only include damage to property, crops and livestock and do not reflect losses from fire events not classified as disasters (Guha-Sapir, et al., 2013). Other important economic parameters not included here are the costs arising from human losses, injuries and longer-term health implications (Kochi et al., 2010). Furthermore, fire suppression costs are not considered in these figures. For example, Greece, France, Italy, Portugal and Spain together invest €2500 million each year in fire management, with most of this budget dedicated to fire detection and suppression (Raftoyannis, et al., 2014). Human and economic losses from wildfire ‘disasters’ by global region from 1984 to 2013 is shown in Table 2.1. From that table, it is clear that the outbreak of fire pose a significant threat to all persons within a building and it can have serious financial and psychological implications (Kimmie, et al., 2009). According to Kumara, et al., (2016), in United State of America, approximately 403,000 residential structure got fires which resulted into 2780 deaths and 13,560 injuries. For children less than 14 years of age, 509 children died. This accounted for about 13% of the fire deaths.
African Perspective of Fire Outbreak
Fires in Africa occur mostly in the wilderness and this combined with the practice of undervaluing ecosystems plus the low capacity to assess impacts of disasters contributes to lack of information on fires in general and mega fires in particular. This however, is improving with the gradual use of earth observation data (Giglio et al., 2005, Giglio et al., 2006).
While poorly resourced, fire management in Africa has since the colonial period become more central government oriented and suppression-centric, alienating rural communities for whom fire continues to be an important land use management tool and daily source of energy (Chuvieco, et al., 2008, Albertyn, et al., 2012). African savannas burn frequently mostly because they have so far sustained fire depended land use systems such as slash and burn agricultural practices, livestock rearing that use fire for pasture and pest control and the prevalence of high reliance on veld products (Laris and Wardell, 2006). Most of these activities occur during the dry season and their intensity is usually elevated in periods of average to above average rainfall when fuel load is also abundant. As a result despite compelling evidence on the role of climate, about 90% are by humans as has been noted for different parts of the world (Dube, 2007, 2009). Not all of these ignitions are directly linked to land use activity, for instance fires due to arson, careless disposing of smoked cigarettes are related to social behavior (Trejo, 2008, Hoffmann et al., 2009). But the role of land use in contemporary burning patterns in Africa is also linked to poverty, which results in heavy direct reliance on immediate environmental resources and low levels of technology for land management. Further, policies that create insecurity in land ownership, pay lip service to land use related fire needs, and or culminate in accumulation of fuel load and a focus on fire suppression have a major role in wild land fire outbreaks (Kepe, et al., 2005). Land use fire needs include requirement to burn for supporting livelihoods as in controlling weeds, pests and diseases, harvesting veld products, hunting and stimulating growth of fresh pasture.
The dichotomy for rural areas in Africa is that while for majority fire offers the cheapest mechanism of land management, at the policy level wild land fire is largely a hazard prohibited by law and if resources permitted it would have been mostly banned (DFRR, 2009). A better understanding of how, at the local level, communities engage with land resources with or without the medium of fire and also understanding of social behaviors that drive ignitions and incorporating these in fire management may provide the basis for sustainable approaches to the threat of fire risk (Myers, 2006, Laris and Wardell, 2006). This is particularly the case for developing countries where resource constraints restrict investment in fire suppression (Trejo, 2008, Willis, 2006) and poor management systems leads to inefficient use of whatever resources are available. South Africa has witnessed several fire disaster events in secondary schools in recent years. The recurrence of fire outbreaks in South Africa prompted the government to establish the Disaster Management Framework for guiding communities in the fight against the problem (Pasipamire, 2011). In Kenya, fire outbreaks have interrupted community life after occasioning damages and loss of life, despite the government issuing of emergency preparedness guidelines for managing disaster events, including fire outbreaks (Nasimiyu, et al., 2017). Furthermore, their Ministry of Education (MoE) has been insisting on cultivating a culture of safety for rescuing secondary schools from fire disaster events (Shibutse, et al., 2014). Efforts to mitigate fire outbreaks in Kenya’s secondary schools notwithstanding, the problem have persisted. In fact, the problem of fire disaster events generally remains critical in Kenya’s secondary schools (Gichuru, 2013, Kanyi, 2014). On prevention of fire outbreak, studies conducted in Africa revealed that lack of facilities, poor conditions of the available facilities and lack of knowledge and awareness among users are among the factors for high fire risks (Kachenje et al., 2010; Mfinanga et al., 2007). The study conducted in Ghana revealed forest fires are strongly linked with livelihoods and caused mainly by human activities. Those impacted negatively on sustainability of agricultural and forest land uses (Harriet, 2017). It was also indicated that the ecological position of the forest brought about by previous use was a recipe for more fires. The research identified fuel treatment, fire detection, and training of fire volunteers as the methods and procedures for effectively controlling forest fires in Ghana as well green firebreaks, tree planting and forest aggradation as means for rehabilitating fire-degraded forests. The study by Ahenkorah-Marfo and Borteye (2010) revealed that about 90% very familiar with the library setting, there was lack of knowledge of the members of staff preventing, fighting and managing disasters such as fire outbreaks and flooding when they occur. This was as a result of inadequate basic training for members of staff.
Fire outbreak in business and public buildings
Oserogho & Associates (2018) points out that cases of fire outbreaks in Nigeria have become a perennial problem. This is, indeed, worrisome. Generally, fires are initiated with a single fuel object. The smoke produced from the burning object is transported by a smoke plume and collects the upper portion of the space as a layer. The smoke plume also transports the heat produced by the fire into the smoke layer, causing the smoke layer to increase in depth and also temperature. This smoke layer radiates energy back to unburned fuels in the space, causing them to increase in temperature. Fire spreads to other objects either by radiation from flames attached to the originally burning item or from the smoke layer. As other objects ignite, the temperature of the smoke layer increases further, radiating more heat to other objects (Oserogho & Associates 2018). In small compartments, the unburned objects may ignite nearly simultaneously. This situation is called flashover. In large compartments, it is more likely that objects will ignite sequentially. The sequence of the ignition depends on the fuel arrangement and composition and ventilation available to support combustion of available fuels.
Dry weather has been identified as the major cause of the recent spate of incidents while storing of petrol in living houses and markets, careless disposal of cigarette stubs, adulterated fuel, power surge, electric sparks and illegal connection of electricity are all sources of fire outbreaks.
Many people have faulted the responsiveness of fire services and emergency first responders in the country, who have been reputed to always arrive late and without sufficient equipment to the scene of fire incidents. There have also been renewed calls for the federal and state governments to adequately fund the fire department and emergency agencies, while the culture of insuring properties is not imbibed by Lagos residents to mitigate the damage and misery of the misfortune (Osaro, 2018).
According to experts, fire safety is considered to be dependent on: How individuals behave, how organizations behave, the vulnerability of the people exposed to the fire, the fire properties of products, the technical fire safety in the building, the fire service’s ability to respond to a fire. Focusing on any one of these points and neglecting the others will lead to suboptimal safety (Osaro, 2018).
Over recent decades public buildings have become larger and more complex. Fire compartments have increased greatly in size and more people can be taken in than before. The great danger with fires in public buildings is if fire gases spread to corridors, stairwells and other open spaces. This makes evacuation more difficult and allows the fire to spread to other parts of the building. The rapid rate at which fires develop means that people often fail to realize how quickly they must respond to a fire. The division of responsibility among those involved is also a problem. Visitors rely on those responsible for the activities in the building. However, personnel in a building often lack proper training on how to deal with a fire. Fire protection in public buildings is dependent on organizational factors and technical measures. The fire fighters play more important role for life saving in public buildings than in homes. The early detection of any fire is clearly vital in public buildings. Education and information are also important so that personnel can deal with a fire in the initial stage of development (Osaro, 2018).
Historically, according to Izuora, (2017), the very first disastrous fire occurred as far back as 587 B.C where the temple and city of Jerusalem were utterly destroyed. This tragic incident brought about loss of lives and properties. In 1906, the San Francisco earthquake and fire is another major fire incident to be remembered. Not in history has a modern imperial city been so completely destroyed. San Francisco went down the drain (Statistics Canada 2018).
Among the first (primary) responders to fire outbreaks in Nigeria are: Nigeria Fire Services, Nigeria traffic management authority ( LASTMA), Nigeria Security and Civil Defense Corps, Ministry of the Environment, Health Monitoring Unit, Red Cross, Nigeria Environmental protection agency and the Power Holding Company of Nigeria. The Secondary Responders are: National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), Emergency Service Department of General Hospitals, Julius Berger Nig. Ltd, Nigerian and the Tertiary Responders are organizations such as: NEMA, United nation international children emergency fund (UNICEF) and the world health organization (Izuora, 2017).
The incessant cases of fatal fires in homes and public buildings in Nigeria resulting into loss of lives and property is the encouraging reason to conduct this study. This paper is intended to conduct statistical analysis of fire outbreak in homes and public buildings in Nigeria. The objectives are: a) to investigate fatal fires in homes and public buildings b) to investigate room of origin, object of origin and causes of fires in buildings. c) To provide recommendations to curb fatal fires.
Factors that contribute to Fire Incidents in Business Buildings
A. Building Design Features
Various design features and their integration in to the fire safety system can be identified as one of reasons for poor fire safety in buildings (Park et al. 2017). Dominant influence for fire can be seen from openings in the compartment by supporting to combustion with air supply. Further, researchers insisted that the flow of air is directly impacted on burning rate of the fire (Statistics Canada 2018). This impact was demonstrated in past research test which has involved three enclosures in same geometry but with different openings locations which alter the air flow. Fire incident in the Faculty of Architecture building, Delft University of Technology in Netherland was an example for massive fires due to design features (Venkatesh, Puneet, & Muhammad, 2019). The building was consisted with horizontally continuous window which installed throughout the structure and a mezzanine floor which were allowed openness and closeness. The Faculty of Architecture building was made of concrete and steel and with excellent fire resistant materials and also structure had complied with building codes in the Netherland. However, neither vertical fire suppression nor horizontal fire suppression was achieved (Park et al. 2014). Fire investigation revealed that there were various building features which contributed to the speed fire development and supported to a vertical fire spread (Park et al. 2017).
Moreover, the tall exterior window encouraged large flames and horizontally continuous window acted as a channel for horizontal fire spread. In detailed, fire spread was due to open of fire doors, breakdown of compartment walls, extinction and ventilation conditions can be identify as reasons for horizontal fire spread in the University building (Venkatesh, Puneet, & Muhammad, 2019). Moreover, vertical spread of fire was due to flames being directed through broken windows, through a lobby or vertical shafts (Venkatesh, Puneet, & Muhammad, 2019). Further, old and wooded building structure were recognised as causes for fire incidents in King’s Cross station and Bradford City building. Fire incident at the Crowne Plaza Hotel in Denmark reported that firefighters took nearly 8 minutes to just find the door to reach the fireman’s elevator which is placed within less than a 30 meter radius (Moriarty 2019). Later, investigators were identified that the reasons for took this much of time to find a door is due to absent of proper naming on the fireman’s elevator and had the same colour for door and its background walls which make difficult to identify the door. This design was considered as effective from architects’ viewpoint because it provides a sense of a hidden space which actually intended to be used only for hotel staff. However, due to this design error critical delay happened in rescue process (Venkatesh, Puneet, & Muhammad, 2019).
Refurbishment Practices
A high-rise building in Hong Kong was caught for fire due to improper refurbishment practices (Wong and Lau 2007). Lift shaft which was undergoing refurbishment was analysed as the reason for the quick fire spread in the building. One of the lift shafts was undergoing refurbishment with all of its lift doors removed. Temporary plywood panels were constructed but they were not well sealed, with some doors left open prior during the fire. Bamboo scaffolding had been erected inside the lift shaft for construction work. These vertical openings allow rapid development of flames throughout the building (Obasa, Mbamali, & Okolie, 2020).
Human Behaviour
The Hong Kong fire incident in high-rise building further discovered that the floor at the bottom of the lift shaft was assumed to have had garbage, papers, and wasted materials, hence supporting a massive fire hazard (Wong and Lau 2007). Welding work which had electric sparks was reported as ignition source with highly flammable materials. Not involving the building for its’ original design function was identified as a cause for a fire incident in Hong Kong. The high-rise building was constructed for commercial and residential purpose, but later the building was used for industrial practices. Lack of quick response of fire brigade has identified as a reason for recent fire event happened in Kandy, Sri Lanka (Daily News, 2019). Further, Obasa, Mbamali, & Okolie, (2020) have explained that many construction workers are flipped away their cigarette while there are working in the refurbishment project. Careless smoking in the refurbishment, sloppy maintenance on electrical tools, faulty wiring, and lack of adequate fire watch can be identified as common human errors. Not only that, many multi-story building can be seen with lot of debris and waste items around the building. Further, careless or disgruntled workers and uneducated occupants can create fire hazards.
Fire Regulation, Policies and Building Codes
Both designs for fire safety and protection in building are determined by building regulations. Legislation tries to assign minimum standards of safety which building stakeholders must comply (Iyaji, Kolawole, & Anthony, 2016). Most of the building design does influence fire safety while others not. Building fire safety is basically maintained by fire safety regulations and building codes. These building fire safety codes and standards are established to avoid any unexpected losses in the building. But, building owners and responsible parties are tend to fulfil only minimum fire safety levels in the codes or standards (Iyaji, Kolawole, & Anthony, 2016). On the other hand, some buildings are over maintained by fire safety provisions which are not cost-effective. Architects are reported that traditional building codes are not integrated with fire scenarios. Furthermore, architects are complained that they cannot easily incorporate novel building concepts due to restrictive building codes. Therefore, they tend to follow basic requirements, such as exit with and travel distance. Further, the technical standard UNI 11367 is still not a mandatory and it acts as voluntary requirement because the need of significant amount of time and other resources for proper implementation. Further, Sri Lankan Fire Bridge identified as poor equipped by international fire codes and standards (Daily News, 2019). However, attempts to meet the requirement without understanding the basic logic behind the law will be laid to ineffective fire safety of the building.
Fire Fighting Tools and Techniques
Even though, advanced fire related simulation came-up to manage fire catastrophes, still uncertainties can be seen in fire prediction, detection and suppression techniques (Iyaji, Kolawole, & Anthony, 2016). Even though many computer simulation fire related software have been developed, practical application is still in debate. According to Iyaji, Kolawole, & Anthony, (2016) many residential building’s fire spread quickly due to appliances such as heating and lighting appliances, electric outlets and extension cords. Further, Daily News (2019) has identified that recent massive fire in the Kilinochchi, Sri Lanka has exposed many inadequacy in firefighting services and lack of proper equipment. Only 40 fire stations can be seen in Sri Lanka and half of them are located in the one province. Further, Yadav (2019) has stated that Delhi, India fire department reeling under lack of equipment and staff. Sky lifter is an essential vehicle during fire incident which is currently in shortage
Causes of Fire Outbreaks In Nigeria
Njoku, Okon, Okpiliya, Itu (2016) claimed that fire in buildings can be credited to various factors comprising accidents, carelessness and willful acts. In the history of building fires, the causes of fire outbreak are usually due to fire ignition, faulty electric cable, smoking, arson, over heated equipment, cooking etc. (Izuora, 2017). Claims made by both authors established the fact that, fire outbreaks in a building is totally unavoidable. A public building consisting of all class of people with different background and training exposes it to such a hazard. Willful act which is also referred to as Arson has claimed the lives of many in the past. Arson is described as a malicious burning of a property. According to Iyaji, Kolawole, & Anthony, (2016), the Pioneer International Hotel fire in which twenty-eight people were killed was believed to be arson-initiated. In the process of destroying evidences such as results, incriminating files and documents, arson cannot be ruled out as a factor responsible for fire outbreak in public buildings.Faulty electric cable has also been seen as a major cause of fire outbreak in buildings as a result of the use of substandard materials where thin cables were used to minimize cost. This in turn has sparked off fire disaster. Only approved electrical items should be used and strictly, electrical installation works should only be carried out by licensed contractors (Izuora, 2017).
Additionally, major causes of fire outbreak are electrical installation and overloading of electrical sockets or outlets appliances. Other causes are fixing electrical faults personally by the shop occupiers when they do not have the skill, smoking materials, keeping of petrol in the shop during the day and night, rubbish burning, oil that spilt from the generating set, over heating of electronic equipment and sparks form naked lights. The large percentage of fire occurrence in businesses in Nigeria is due to malicious damage. A large proportion of fire occurrence may also be due to carelessness and ignorance of the shop occupiers. Once a fire started, heat is evolved and is being transmitted into other materials, which if they are combustible will ignite and in turn help to spread the fire heat from the hotter to the cooler parts of a solid material, whereby heat is radiated in all directions. The rate and extent of spread of fire is affected by the nature and disposition of the contents of the premises, the construction and layout of the shops and whether the area in which the fire occurs is adequately separated from the rest of the shops (Iyaji, Kolawole, & Anthony, 2016).
Environmental Effect Of Fire Outbreak In Nigeria
If an environmental event causes an impact to the ecology, generally it will affect a large area and affect the ecology of that area. This is the more likely outcome of a fire event. One can break the impacts into pathways, over which the hazards travel from the source to the target. The pathways are environmental pollution through water, air, land or noise pollution. (CRC, 1999). Hazards that can be experienced from a fire include general pollutants/indicators, metals, particulates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), chlorinate dioxins and furans, brominated dioxins and furans, polychlorinated biphenyls and polyfluorinated compounds ((e.g., see ISO 26367-2), (Turekova & Balog, 2010), (Simonson, et al., 2000) (Additional file 1), (Simonson et al. 2001), (Andersson et al. 2003)). From this list we can see that there are a wide variety of chemicals and particulates emitted during fires that have been identified as having a negative impact on the environment. It is necessary to identify and understand which of these substances will have an impact on the three major environmental receptors of concern: the atmospheric, aquatic and terrestrial environments. However, quantification of the impact is difficult, as challenges exist in identifying and appropriately sampling these substances during and following a fire event. In addition, the exposure time and persistence in the environment can play a role. The fire effluents may or may not make an impact on the environment depending on the duration of exposure, the means of transmission to the environment, and the susceptibility of the receptor. A clear distinction to differentiate impacts is the differentiation between short term and long term, where short term impacts are considered to occur over a few hours or a few days, at most. Long term impacts are impacts beyond immediate, short term impacts. Short-term environmental impacts from exposure to fires pertain mostly to the local environment within the fire plume zone and water run-off zone. The nature of the impact(s), the exposure pathway(s), and the time period for which this condition is expected to exist shall be reported and should at least include the following contaminants: nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx), metals, halogenated acids (HX) and particulates ((Andersson, et al., 2004), (Simonson, et al., 2000), (FM Global, 2010), (Marlair et al. 2004), (USDA, 2002).
The long term environmental impacts, resulting from hazards from fire will be considered impacts that are not immediately felt or recognized. An example of this is the impact of erosion after a wildfire because it happens months to years after the fire had been contained. These effects are focused in the location(s) where the fire occurred or a relatively short distance away, but there are exceptions based upon the pathway that the hazards might take. The following pollutants have been identified as having some long term impacts: metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF) & polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDD), polybrominated dibenzofurans (PBDF) & polybrominated dibenzodioxins (PBDD), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and perfluorinated compounds (PFC) ((FM Global, 2010), (EPA 2008), (Blomqvist, 2005), (Andersson, et al., 2004), (Simonson, et al., 2000)). A critical piece of the transmission is the transport medium. A generalization below is intended to provide guidance to non-experts when determining what the major impact of concerns are.
Fire Prevention and Management
Economically stable countries such as Spain and Turkey have reinforced their fire protection and management strategies by investing heavily on firefighters. For example, Europe has invested heavily in firefighting machines. Hence, it has the largest aircraft and helicopter firefighting fleets. However, underdeveloped countries such as the Balkans and Albania are still struggling with fire protection and management. Disaster preparedness requires substantial investment in terms of equipment and training of personnel on disaster management. The complex process of preparedness and management in fire safety involves the correct use of information, insight, innovation, integration, and involvement (Milisic, 2015). Gathering sufficient information about the possible causes of fires and the potential solutions and preventative measures is crucial in developing and implementing fire protection
and management strategies (Drysdale, 2019). The available information should be critically analyzed in order for the strategists make well-informed decisions regarding the best preventative measures.
The information can then be used to empower the citizens with knowledge on how to prevent fires and the steps to take in the event of a fire breakout. For example, the informal settlements in underdeveloped countries are more likely to experience fire outbreaks due to poor power connections and use of old methods of cooking that increase the risk of fire outbreaks. Empowering such people with information on the prevention measures against fire outbreaks can not only reduce the risk but also help the people to recover from such disasters. Educating people about fire safety is one of the highly recommended strategies against fires (Milisic, 2015). However, educating people requires substantial investments, and strained budgets, misplaced priorities, and incompetence in regards to fire management knowledge are some of the challenges that limit underdeveloped countries from achieving the goals of protection from fires and management of events when they occur.
Bearing information about fires and fire prevention strategies is not enough to prevent fires, according to Milisic (2015). Insightful conversion of data into useful knowledge facilitates the development of actionable plans. Insightful analysis of information enables the strategies to apply the information gained in real life situations. Insight from such information can either be the blinding flash or in the form of statistical methods. Again, this requires substantial investment in fire prevention strategies, which most underdeveloped countries such as the Balkans and Albania lack. Gaining insight encourages the interaction between the communities and the agencies appointed to oversee fire protection and management. The interaction further informs fire protection and management strategies, in that the solutions can be tailored to for the unique needs of different communities. For example, a pastoralist community will require different fire prevention and management strategies from a community living in overpopulated informal settlements. Insight gives rise to innovation.
Fire Incidents preventive measures in Nigeria
Actions related to legislative reform
Many characteristics associated with law reform and law enforcement regarding the prevention of fires and injuries were evaluated in this study. These include laws related to the installation of warning systems and safety equipment, the implementation of safety rules relat- ed to smoking, laws related to planning and coordi- nation between municipal departments18 and also amending construction and engineering laws28 are the most important preventive measures with respect to legislative reform (Drysdale, 2019).
Environmental modification measures
Among the preventive measures related to environ- mental modification and improvement, the following were the most important findings: the use of fire detec- tion and fire extinguishing systems, such as installation of automatic sprinklers, active smoke,alarms, and other fire extinguishing systems in buildings, design of emer- gency exits, installation of central heating systems. Among these measures, the use of alarm systems and fire extinguishers was investigated in studies, and indeed all except seven studies referred to the necessity of using these systems. Automatic sprinkler system construction and installation as well as the use of active smoke-warning systems were noted in most cas- es. In two studies, the roles of fire alarm systems in buildings were noted (Drysdale, 2019).
Measures related to residents’ behaviors
Many studies looked at the behavior of residents in connection with escape planning and emergency exits and going to a safe place during fires. Also, not smoking, especially in bed, reduction of alcohol consumption, use of protective equipment against smoke, closing the doors and windows while sleeping to prevent the spread of smoke as characteristics associated with the behavior of building occupants were examined in numerous studies. (Drysdale, 2019)
Rescue system and medical care measures
A total of seven studies examined the relationship between the promotion of rescue systems as well as medical care in reducing the risk of injury and death. In these studies, improving burns care, upgrading the emergency treatment of victims, doing a quick fire aid service and primary medical treatment,30 were highlighted. Moreover, improvement of trauma systems and fire victim care were examined in six studies and the importance of their role in reducing injuries and deaths after a fire was empha- sized. In addition, the importance of improving the quality of firefighting and rescue services in injury re- duction was highlighted in two studies (Drysdale, 2019).
Benefits of Fire Insurance
Fire, though, one of the humanity greatest discoveries is also a formidable enemy, (Akhimien, Isiwele, & Adamolekun 2017). Fire insurance is the type of insurance coverage in which an individual pays sum of money to the company, in exchange to receive advantages for the fire losses. Fire insurance provides the security for home, home furniture, enterprises buildings and market places. Fire insurance policy involves an insurer agreeing to pay a certain amount equivalent to the estimated loss caused by fire to the insured, within the time specified in the contract. The indemnity is subject to change depending upon the policy. One should confirm with the insurer about the types of risks covered, since one cannot insure the property against all types of risks of fire.
Generally, fire insurance contract is valid for a period of one year and it can be extended from the insurance holder’s side. Moreover, it can be terminated by either side if policy expiration deadline has passed. This insurance not only provides safety against the fire risks render but it also plays a major role in reducing the fire waste (Akhimien, Isiwele, & Adamolekun 2017). Fire insurance can really help insurance holders in recovering financially as well as emotionally. It can provide following benefits to the insurance holders:-
i.Replacement of Contents: Fire hazard causes irreparable damage to the lock, stock and other items of the house / property. After successful acceptance of the claim, insurance holders get replacement reimbursement up to a pre-defined value of the business or household contents.
ii.Provisional Housing: This insurance protects insurance holders from the loss of home, business and other related possessions. Payments for the provisional housing represent one of those protections where insurance holders can stay for a particular period of time. In this time, they can repair the structure of their building before moving back to the place.
iii.Rebuilding of the Damaged: Fire brings destruction to a building and it can lead to significant damage to the house or business structure. Under this insurance, policy holders get coverage for the replacement or rebuilding of the damaged sections. Before committing to the policy, people need to make sure that swimming pool, garage and outhouses are included in it (Akhimien, Isiwele, & Adamolekun 2017).
iv.Preventive Measurements: Policy costs can be decreased by the usage of sprinkler systems, fire alarms and other measurements of safety inside the home or business building.
V. Prevent Financial Disaster: Fire policy help to cover financial losses. It is a critical safety net nobody should do without.
2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This study will be anchored by the following theory:
Complexity Theory by Pelling (2003)
Petak’s Four-Phase Model on Disaster Management by Petak (1985)
Complexity Theory by Pelling (2003)
The origins of Complexity Theory may be traced back to the study of complicated natural phenomena such as meteorology. As demonstrated by the butterfly effect, contemporary civilization, which is immersed in complex networks, requires distinct safeguards against calamity. Japan's Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant tragedy, Thailand's massive flood, and fire outbreaks are all significant examples of disasters that modern civilization is being confronted with. The Complexity Theory is beneficial for comprehending disaster features and devising relevant countermeasures. According to Pelling (2003), as referenced in Rattan (2018), Complexity Theory teaches an essential lesson about coping with calamities. For instance, one of Complexity Theory's features is "emergence," which demonstrates a characteristic of disasters that occur as a result of unanticipated causes and in unexpected locations. According to Rattan (2018), "emergence" occurs when individuals create temporary groups and respond to crisis events. Beck's Danger Society and Perrow's Normal Accident Theory are both compatible with Complexity Theory in that developing risk in contemporary society is inextricably linked to its increasing complexity. Thus, the fundamental concepts of Complexity Theory, such as nonlinearity, self-similarity, fractal, self-organization, and emergence, are critical for comprehending disaster characteristics and developing novel disaster response strategies in contemporary society.
Petak’s Four-Phase Model on Disaster Management by Petak (1985)
Petak created a four-phase model for disaster management in 1985, outlining the involvement of governments and stakeholders in each step. He split disaster management into pre- and post-disaster phases based on the progression of catastrophes and countermeasures and presented disaster management techniques chronologically:
Mitigating disasters
Preparedness for emergencies
Response to disasters
Reconstruction following a disaster
Petak underlined the need of clearly delineating the duties and responsibilities of all levels of government and stakeholders for efficient disaster management (Petak 1985) as quoted in (Williams, 2019). Petak's methodology affected the fundamental framework of the Framework Act for Disaster Management and Safety (hence referred to as the "Disasters and Safety Act").
2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW
Rathnayake, Sridarran & Abeynayake (2020) carried out a research on “Factors contributing to Business Building Fire Incidents: A review. The study revealed that buildings are long-lasting infrastructures which usually designed to withstand over 60 years. Durability or performance of the building is affected by numerous reasons and among that fire incidents may cause direct or indirect impacts to the present building or even in old age. Building collapses, implied damages and potential injury can be identified as outcomes of fire incidents. Moreover, fire fatalities are reported frequently as a red light to the safety of buildings. Despite, many fire detection and protection techniques are available for buildings, building fires are still considered as a major threat to the occupants. Thus, to ensure fire safety of the building, comprehensive review of past fire incidents to identify factors affecting to the fire is needed. Hence, this study aimed at reviewing the factors which are mostly affecting to the building fire incidents worldwide. A comprehensive literature review was directed to explore the behaviour of building fire, hardware and software measures of fire safety, models for fire impact evaluation, global fire incidents in different buildings and factors affecting to the building fire incidents. Building design features, refurbishment practices, human behaviour, fire regulations, policies and building codes, fire fighting tools and techniques and perceptions of architects and fire protection engineers were identified as factors affecting to the building fire incidents. Finally, the paper proposes a conceptual framework for better understanding on past fire incidents and to strive for fire resistant buildings in the future.
Similarly, Oloke, Oluwatobi & Oni (2015) examined the occurrence of fire disaster in Arepo community of Obafemi-Owode Local Government Area of Ogun State with emphasis on residential buildings. Questionnaires were administered to 210 adult residents of the neighbourhood while only 150 valid questionnaires are subsequently used for the analysis. Responses were measured on 5-Point Likert scale while the mean score, relative important index as well as frequency and percentages were also used for the analysis. Results were presented with Tables and charts. The study found that residential fire disaster ranked 2nd among the six segments/object of fire disaster that had occurred in the community. It was further observed that faulty electrical appliances, carelessness and faulty cooking gadget ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd among the causes of residential fire outbreak in the neighbourhood and that majority of residential housing units are ill-equipped against fire outbreak within the residential neighbourhood in the community. The study therefore concluded by suggesting that government provide firefighting station in the community of Arepo and that the general public has to be enlightened on the importance of providing active firefighting equipment such as fire alarm system, smoke detector, flame detector, heat detector fire extinguisher etc. in their homes.
Furthermore, the “Trend of Fire Outbreaks in Ghana and Ways to Prevent These Incidents was investigated Addai, Tulashie, Annan & Yeboah (2016) and the work revealed that in Ghana, fire incidents have become a regular occurrence, with thousands of lives and millions of dollars lost every year. Hardly a day passes without news of a fire outbreak in some part of Ghana, causing fear and panic among the people. This generates much discussion centering on rumors relating to politics, sabotage, misfortune, religious differences, etc. This article seeks to discuss the trend of fire incidents occurring in Ghana from 2000 to 2013 and the different ways to prevent these incidents. The pattern of fire incidence in Ghana as a whole as well as in each region is discussed. The study took into consideration the causes, mechanisms, as well as preventive measures against the fire menace. Data were obtained from the head office of Ghana’s national fire service. It was noticed that in general the rate of fire incidence increased each year. This increase was attributed to several factors: rate of population growth and industrialization, unstable electricity, ur- banization, negligence, illegal electrical connection, etc. The cause of fire was categorized into domestic, industrial, vehicular, institutional, electrical, commercial, bush, and others. Among these causes, do- mestic fire accounted for 41% of the total number of fire incidents in the country. Finally, this study presents several recommendations to help prevent and mitigate fire in- cidents in Ghana.