AN ANALYSIS OF E-READINESS OF A HIGHER INSTITUTION

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

ICTs have been seen by all people and in all sectors as a necessary tool for development not only in the developing countries but also the developed countries. Okpaku (2003) explained that ICTs are the engines that drive the deployment of knowledge and information and are pipes and mechanisms, through which knowledge and information are packaged and transmitted, to be unbundled for deployment at the receiving end. ICTs are technologies that facilitate communication and aid the information transmission process through means such as radio, television, and telephones, computers and the Internet.

The Executive Director of Bridges.org contends that:

ICT is a key weapon in the war against world poverty. When used properly, it offers a tremendous potential to empower people in the developing countries to overcome development obstacles; to address the most important social problems they face; and to strengthen communities, democratic institutions, a free press, and local economies (Peters, 2003). The urgency of the ICT revolution to the developing countries has also been reiterated:

In fact, economic history, the cumulative learning and transformation process involved in using ICT, and the pace of this wave of technological change suggest that a ‘wait and see attitude’ would keep many developing countries out of a technological revolution no less profound than the last industrial revolution (Hanna, 2003a).

Colle and Roman (2002) did not mince words when they made their argument at the International Congress of Information on the topic “Content for ICT Initiatives” at Havana International Conference Center, Cuba, that “Information and communication technology (ICT) is not really about the computer, the Internet, and telephone lines. It’s about Information and Communication.” The continuing rapid advancement of Information and Communication Technologies has, in reality, made access to knowledge easier and significantly much more readily available to the wider population and around the world. It is worth noting that as much as the technology can build a path for speedy development, its institution can, if inappropriately handled, frustrate developmental efforts and waste both time and very scarce resources. The unique characteristics accompanying these technologies as compared to the old forms of communications especially in Africa, calls for their adaptation and adoption to help improve communication in Africa.

Some Exceptional Characteristics of ICT

The new information and communication technologies have many features that allow them to transcend barriers that the traditional communication technologies do not have. The digital and virtual nature of these technologies made them applicable at anywhere and at anytime. Thus becoming global unlike other communication technologies specific to certain regions, for example story telling found mostly in Africa. Colle and Roman (2003a) have identified the following unique features typical of ICTs:

• Reaching many people simultaneously;

• Overcoming geographic boundaries;

• Overcoming social and literacy barriers;

• Providing frequency and repetition of contact;

• Storage of information for on-demand access;

• Capturing the reality of events, by depicting them graphically and in real time;

• Greater efficiency (lower costs) in sending and receiving information.

In his introduction to an article “ICT Revolution, Globalization and Informational Lock-in” Bulat Sanditov substantiates the arguments made earlier by Colle and Roman that one can ‘travel’ to the places, one never knew before, not leaving a couch in front of one’s TV, or learn an amazing variety of languages, or cooking styles just from the computer on one’s desk (Sanditov, 2004). The ICT revolution has been described as having the following characteristics:

• A knowledge revolution that is giving rise to an information society or knowledge economy, whereby knowledge creation, codification, diffusion and effective use are driving growth and competitiveness (OECD, 1996; Dahlman and Aubert, 2002).

• A learning revolution that has given rise to the learning economy, learning organizations, life-long learning (World Bank, 2002b; ILO, 2001).

• An innovation-driven economy, which brings together research institutions, business startups, venture capital, and related services to spark up, speed and sustain growth (Nelson et al, 1993; OECD, 2001; Stern, and Furman, 2000).

• A productive revolution impacting new ICT industries, ICT-using industries and services, and overall total factor productivity, evidenced mainly in the USA (EIB, 2001; Onliner and Sichel, 2000; Jorgensen and Stirah, 2000; Graham, 2001; Gordon, 2000).

The World Bank’s infoDev also outlined three factors that motivate developing countries to promote the adoption of ICT for development:

(i) ICT promises enormous benefits as part of the solution to economic and social problems.

(ii) Developing countries face the threat of being left further behind if they do not address the growing digital divides both between and within counties.

(iii) International leaders, foreign donors, and lending agencies are integrating ICT into development and aid programs (infoDev, n,d).

The bottom line, however, is that ICTs per se with all these characteristics, can only act as a potential powerful tool that could be used for development. They are means but not the end to human development efforts. If deploy effectively and efficiently, ICTs can lead to improvement of livelihood for the majority. They can help developing countries get integrated into the global economy but do not replace the roles of humans, relieve us from actually doing the job or from making the right political choices.

What Is the Internet?

According to the Leland Initiative, the Internet is often described as: A ‘network of networks,’ because it first began through the linking of existing local computer networks used by universities and governmental organizations. The Internet is more than just a technological marvel and includes exchange of electronic mail with other Internet users who have e- mail accounts, access and participate in discussion forums, which are real- time ‘conversations’, search databases, try different computer programs, purchase goods and services, watch video files, listen to audio files, exchange electronic documents, post information for other people to use, and find relevant information on almost any subject imaginable (Leland Initiative, 1998).

In describing the immense impact that Internet is capable of having on education and the classroom, Eadie (2001) cited David Campbell (2000) as saying that “the Internet is instantly interactive and the user can control what happens. It responds to the individual and is an empowering medium that allows them (students) to do things that their teachers don’t understand or can’t do.” The Internet has the special potential to help in accelerating developmental goals. Richardson (1996) argued that the Internet could introduce new information resources and open new communication channels for rural farmers. It is inexpensive, fast, two-way medium and a powerful tool for storage, retrieval, and dissemination of information. The use of the Internet has grown rapidly from the developed countries to the Third world countries. The impact of the Internet on the African continent is, however, minimal compared to the other regions of the world.

According to Jensen (1998a), 16 countries in Africa had full access to the Internet in 1996, but in only five of these countries was this service available outside the capital city. UNDP World Development Report “Making Technologies Work for Human Development” gave the following breakdown: One user of the Internet for every 250-400 people in Africa, compared to a world average of about one user for every 15 people, and a North American and European average of about one in every two people, one in 30 people for Latin America and the Caribbean, one in 250 people for South Asia, one in 43 people for East Asia, and one in 166 people for the Arab States (UNDP, 2000).

While these data are appear to be old given the rapid development surrounding ICTs, similar patterns continue to exist in the 21st century as evidenced in the table below adapted from (Aniebonam, 2002) which compares Africa’s ICT status with that of North America.

Why the Interest in ICTs by National and International Agencies?

ICTs have had considerable impact on the economies of the developed countries. The developing countries still need some form of “push” to be able keep pace with the ICT revolution. In a SIDA document “Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in Developing Countries: How can the ICT revolution benefit the developing countries?” it was noted that developing cooperation agencies can play an important role at this embryonic stage of ICT development in the developing countries by providing the necessary tools for utilizing ICT (SIDA, 2003). The South African Deputy President (at the time), Thabo Mbeki at the G-8 countries summit in Brussels expressed the need for G-8 countries to assist developing countries in their processes and project implement towards sustainable development (Mbeki, 1995). Talero and Gaudette (1996:1), state that the World Bank helps the development of the information economy primarily through strategic advisory services and distribution of knowledge and expertise in support of individual country needs. The United Nations (UN) has taken a major step toward bridging the digital divide that exists between developing and developed countries with the adoption, by the General Assembly, of a resolution which welcomed the organization of the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS, 2003). Thapisa and Birabwa (1998) state that these organizations are in a good position to coordinate the roles of government and the private sector, maintain balance between the market-oriented service industry and community needs, and see to it that the ideal of universal access is realized.

The interest in the use of ICTs by all these organizations could be for development, the development of the poor; the poor in the Least Developed Countries (LDCs). The most appropriate channel for reaching them is through these new technologies that have been described earlier in the text as overcoming geographic boundaries. Telecenters, which are able to link these remote areas to the rest of the globe, could be an effective resource center for these organizations to achieve their aims.

The Concept of e-Readiness

A society’s electronic preparedness can be seen as the degree to which the society can participate in the advantages and opportunities of a knowledge-based society, and accept the challenges that such environments pose. This is measured by judging the relative advancement of the most important areas for the adoption of the ICTs and their applications. The definition of e-Readiness as given by the Center for International Development at Harvard University describes an ‘e-ready’ society as:

One that has the necessary physical infrastructure (high bandwidth, reliability, and affordable prices) has integrated current ICTs throughout businesses (commerce, local ICT sector), communities (local content, organizations online, ICTs used in everyday life, ICTs taught in schools), and the government (e-government).

The World Bank Information for Development Program (infoDev) gave the following definitions for e-Readiness:

At the State level, it is the preparedness of states to provide governance equitably and cost effectively and the capacity to reflect in the degree of integration the deprived segments of society attain application of ICT as an e- governance tool. Apart from this the ability of the state to provide business, the capacity to participate in the provincial level digital economy and further networking with national level digital economy (infoDev, 2003). At the Ministry/Department level, it is the degree to which a country is prepared to participate in the networked world. It would demand the adoption of important application of ICTs in offering interconnectedness between government, business and citizens (infoDev, 2003).

McConnell (2001) also recognized the following attributes with the e-Readiness assessment:

(i). Connectivity—How are networks easy and affordable to access and to use; (ii). E-Leadership—How is the e-readiness a national priority;

(iii). Information Security—How can the processing and storage of networked information be trusted;

(iv). Human Capital—How are the right people available to support e-business and to build a knowledge-based society; and

(v). E-Business Climate—How easy is it to do e-business today.

Results from e-Readiness assessments act as the starting point in a participatory planning dialogue. It provides information on resources existing at the time to policy- makers and other organizations that want to use e-Readiness assessment results to plan for the integration of technologies in society. It may also act as a baseline for other organizations that may be considering new e-Readiness assessments. In their article “E- Readiness Assessment” Renu Budhiraja and Sameer Sachdeva argue that e-Readiness assessment will enable better accountability, validation amongst objectives set, healthy competition, and help in preparing a National Action Plan (Budhiraja and Sachdeva, 2002).

For the purpose of this research, the “Dual Strategy” of ICT pointed out by the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) will be reviewed both in the institutional and national contexts in the next section—“ICTD and ICT4D.” ICT Development in this case will assess the ICT policy, infrastructure and access, human resource development situation globally and nationally, and academic programs of the universities whilst ICT for Development will look at the application of the policies, infrastructure and access, resources and academic programs that will lead to the improvement of the livelihood of the people through outreach activities.

Information and Communication Technology Development (ICTD)

ICTD is the capacity building of a nation or company or institution in terms of ICT policy, infrastructure, and human resources. Information technology, like any other technology, is a means to an end and to be able to reach this end will depend on the political or institutional choices that are made or not made. Assessing the level to which ICT infrastructures, policies and human resources are in place is the first level of e- readiness assessment and gives the extent to which these tools can be applied for development. The next section of this discussion will therefore look at the national and institutional development of these ICT tools.

National ICT Policies

National governments can play a fundamental role in creating an environment that will foster technology use and encourage investment in ICT infrastructure, development, and a skilled workforce. The Asia-Pacific represented by a vast and diverse region, convened a forum on ICT with delegates including Ministers and senior government officials, private sector and civil society representatives from about 22 countries from the 20th –22nd October 2003 in Kuala Lumpur. The participants at the end of the forum made this declaration:

We the participants of the Asian Forum on Information and Communication Technology Policies and e-Strategies hereby endorse the formulation, adoption, and implementation of ICT policies and e-strategies at the national, bilateral, regional, and international levels that include the following elements: Poverty Reduction and the Millennium Development Goals, Policy and Governance, Infrastructure and Access, Human Capacity, Content and Applications, Enterprise and Entrepreneurs, Strategic Compacts and Co- operation (Asian Forum on Information and Communication Technology Policies and E-strategies, 2003).

Each of the above elements was elaborated with the background of the importance of ICTs in development. As a result of this and other declarations and efforts, the response of many governments is to formulate national ICT policies and strategies, where ICT is treated mainly as a sector or industry. Dzidonu (2002a) pointed out that a number of European countries as well as Asian countries including India, Singapore, Malaysia, and South American countries, among them, Brazil, Chile, and Mexico, have already put in place ICT policies and plans or are at an advanced stage of implementing the programs.

In India, the government sees ICTs and their deployment for socio-economic development as an area in which the country can quickly establish global dominance and reap tremendous payoffs in creating wealth and generating quality employment for the populace (Dzidonu, 2002a). Malaysia’s Vision 2020, which envisages the country as a fully developed nation by year 2020 and Singapore’s vision of transforming the country into an ‘Intelligent Island’ see ICTs as the main engine for promoting accelerated development and growth, and for gaining global competitive advantage (Dzidonu, 2002a).

E-readiness Assessment: Objective and Assessment Processes

The complex process of harnessing ICT and bridging the digital divide needs a comprehensive solution built on a foundation of detailed information. E-readiness assessments can provide this information and serve as a benchmark for future progress by assessing the status of the most important areas for the adoption of ICT. According to Mani (2002), a country’s e-readiness must be evaluated in order for it to define policies that will allow it to insert itself more effectively into the knowledge-based economy (Mani 2002). E-readiness assessments depict a complicated patchwork of varying levels of ICT access, usage, and applications among countries and peoples. The various e-readiness assessments measure a wide range of factors from ICT policies to everyday ICT usage. An e-readiness assessment, when properly applied in a larger process of evaluation, is a first step towards converting good intentions into planned actions that bring real changes to people’s lives. E-readiness assessments are meant to guide development efforts by providing benchmarks for comparison and gauging progress, determining the current situation in order to plan for the future and advocate specific changes. E-readiness assessments can also be a vital tool for judging the impact of ICT, to replace wild claims and anecdotal evidence about the role of ICT in development with concrete data for comparison (Renu & Sameer, 2002).

Bridges Organisation divided existing e-readiness assessment tools into two classes based on the objectives of carrying out assessments. The tools were categorized as those that focused on basic infrastructure or a nation’s readiness for business or economic growth (e-commerce) and those that focused on the ability of the overall society to benefit from ICT (e-society). The organization further presented a similar way to view the e-readiness assessment models in terms of e-society, e-economy, and e-system, where e-system models examine the underlying technology infrastructure that is a prerequisite for both e-economy (including e-commerce, ICT sector jobs, etc.), and e-society (use by the general population, etc.) (Bridges Organisation, 2001). Renu and Sameer (2002), identified e-infrastructure and e- governance as two additional areas to be evaluated by an e-readiness assessment. According to them, the focus in e- infrastructure should be on institutions, hardware and software while the focus in e-governance is on government process reengineering and faster transparent means of delivering government services to the citizens. (Renu and Sameer 2002).

Reports on Assessed E-readiness

Different efforts to assess e-readiness at the global, regional and national levels have been reported. Tankoano (2002) reported at the global level that 32.77% telephone subscribers and 8.42% computer owners experienced inadequate infrastructure support. According to Tankoano, Africa, in addition to having unsuited infrastructures, is the continent where these infrastructures are least developed. In his analysis he reported the least values of 5.56% telephone subscribers and 1.06 % computer owners in Africa as against highest values of 84.97% and 39.91% computer owners in the Oceania. He also added “although Africa is the continent where more than half the population still survives on less than $1 per day, access costs to infrastructure are amongst the highest” with Internet Service Provider (ISP) taxes of 52.3% and14.1% in Africa and Europe respectively in 2001 (Tankoano, 2002). Ifinedo (2005) assessed the integration of Africa into the global economy by computing the e-readiness for nine African countries. In his analysis, he categorized African countries into three broad groups:

i. Category one – those with very low infrastructure, literacy level, GDP per capita, educational and technical endowments, etc., for example, Togo, Cote d’Ivoire

ii. Category two – those with fairly good infrastructure, adequate educational and technical endowments better than those of countries in category one, for example, Kenya.

iii. Category three – those with relatively large amounts of infrastructure, good educational and technical endowments, for example, Nigeria, South Africa.

Ifinedo (2005) concluded that overall, the mean e-readiness of Africa is poor in comparison to other economies. Particularly, Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) - with the exception of South Africa and its neighbors - has a poor e-readiness score; on the other hand, North African countries fared better than those in SSA. Docktor (2002) reported the results of different assessments carried out by organizations such as the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), African Information Society Initiative (AISI), United Nations Education, Social and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Netcraft, etc. The assessments carried out were on Personal Computer (PC) penetration, bandwidth quality, vision & planning (national strategy), usage (government web pages) and human capital workforce (IT students in tertiary education).The assessment result was ranked on five levels: low level, low-medium level, medium level, medium-high level and high level. On PC penetration assessment, among thirty one (31) African countries, Mauritius was reported as the only country on the medium high level, Botswana and South Africa on the medium level; Namibia, Togo, Senegal low-medium. The other twenty-six (26) countries including Nigeria were ranked at a low level. In the report on bandwidth quality amongst twenty three (23) countries, South Africa and Zimbabwe were rated at a medium high level; Botswana, Mauritius, Namibia, Nigeria, Ghana and Kenya were rated at a medium level, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia and Gabon were rated at a low medium level and the other thirteen countries were rated low. On vision & planning (national strategy), South Africa was rated on a medium-high level, Benin, Cameroon, Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, Mauritania, Mozambique, Rwanda, Senegal and Uganda at a medium level and the other thirteen countries including Nigeria were at a low level. On usage (government web pages), five countries (Botswana, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Zimbabwe) ranked on medium- high level, sixteen countries functioned at the medium level, fourteen countries at a low medium level and five countries (Benin, Congo, Guinea, Eritrea, Somalia) at a low level. On human capital workforce (IT students in tertiary education) Botswana, Cameroon, Mauritania, Nigeria, and Tanzania all ranked at a high level. Fifteen countries including South Africa ranked at a medium high level, twelve (12) countries ranked at a medium level. Mauritius ranked at a low medium level and Guinea-Bissau was the only country at the low level (Docktor, 2002).

According to the 2005 Economic Intelligence Unit, the world’s e-readiness for the years 2005 and 2004 were assessed, the assessments reported the global average e-readiness indices of 0.42671 and 0.41268 for the two years respectively. The European region had the highest e- readiness indices followed by the Americas while Africa had the least indices for the two years considered. The country level analysis of the global e-readiness data revealed the United States of America as the world’s most e-ready country, having an e-readiness index of 0.9062 in 2005 while Liberia was the least e-ready country with e-readiness of 0.0011 in the same year (United Nations, 2006). For the African region, Southern Africa sub-region had the highest e-readiness indices for the years 2005 and 2004 followed by the Northern Africa, while the Western Africa had the least e-readiness indices. Country analysis of the African region showed that Mauritius was the most e-ready country while Liberia was the least e-ready country in African sub-region in the year 2005. The Western Africa’s average e-readiness indices for the years 2005 and 2004 were 0.193 and 0.1915 respectively. The most e-ready of all the sixteen countries of this sub-region was Cape Verde having an e-readiness index of 0.3346 with a global position of 116th. Cape Verde was followed by Ghana and then Nigeria while the least e-ready country in the sub-region was Liberia which happened to be the least e-ready country in the African region. Nigeria was rated as the world’s 139th e -ready country, the 23rd. in the African region and the 3rd in the Western African sub-region with e-readiness index of 0.2758 in 2005 (United Nations, 2006).

The Implications of ICT on Education

The advent of globalization and the ICT revolution has had a significant impact in terms of both the demand and supply for education and skills development. The implication of this especially for the developing countries is to adopt and adapt this general-purpose technology to focus on reforms, particularly the content of their educational and training programs, which will in the long term benefit the masses.

Current research and pilots suggest that ICT has the potential to fundamentally transform how and what people learn throughout their lives (Resnick, 2002a). The Internet and distance learning are expanding the learning ecosystem beyond schools, enabling new types of “knowledge building communities” in which children and adults around the world collaborate on projects and learn from each other (Resnick, 2002a). The UN Secretary General made a clear linkage between ICT and education by referring to the role of ICT in the Global e-Schools and Communities Initiative (GeSCI), launched recently at the World Summit on the Information Society in Geneva:

This innovative partnership can help millions of children and young people throughout the developing world to improve their lives; after all, while education unlocks the door to development, increasingly it is information technologies that can unlock the door to education (Kofi Annan, 2003).

This is a signal that calls for the building of the ICT capacity of the universities to shoulder the challenges of policies, infrastructure and connectivity, human resources, academic programs, research and teaching, knowledge management, and outreach activities. UNESCO has argued that, in introducing ICT into education, the following factors must be considered:

(i) Technology has to be infused into the entire educational program, i.e. the program going beyond simply teaching about how to use the software programs to include the application in teaching, planning and development.

(ii) Technology should be introduced in context and culture: awareness that infusion and use of technology is done within a context, whether cultural, structural and any other.

(iii) Teachers and students should learn in an innovative technology supported learning environment in their education program.

(iv) Lifelong learning: awareness that technology is constantly changing and that there is a need for an ongoing commitment on learning of ICTs in teacher education (UNESCO, 2002a).

The role of the teacher or instructor cannot be overemphasized in ICT education. The combination of factors outlined above by UNESCO creates the environment that helps teachers acquire competencies critical for successful use of ICTs as tools for classroom learning. Gail Marshall, a school technology consultant based in St. Louis declared:

I don’t think there is a way that content can get to the kids without somebody in the middle helping them. If teachers aren’t comfortable with the approach inherent in a piece of software or online activity, they might get frustrated or simply goof it up (Trotter, 1999).

The demands on teachers especially in higher institutions seem overpowering, i.e. teaching, keeping up with developments in content and teaching methods, the demands of school improvement initiatives, and coaching or mentoring responsibilities after school and on weekends and other outreach activities. Guhlin (1996) supported this argument that most teachers want to learn technology but lack time, access, and on-site support but would take advantage of technology learning if a school district offers a training session that introduces ways to use technology for specific instructional tasks.

However, a caution has been sounded especially for African institutions in the adoption of ICT in their classroom:

Embarking on ICT-mediated education is...an inherently risky affair. It can be doomed if it is perceived and implemented as traditional residential education which is technologically mediated. This is a crucial consideration, especially in the context of Africa where the socio-economic circumstances of the majority of the population are such that inappropriate technology can exclude them from higher education (T.J. de Coning, n.d).

According to the Partnership for Higher Education in Africa (PHEA) (2002a), just as a linchpin keeps a wheel in place, information and communications technologies (ICTs) are essential to the running of universities. It went on to state that ICT could enhance effective teaching, learning, and research in Africa, as it does elsewhere in the world. UNESCO (2002b) outlined four steps to the approach to ICT development in schools. These are:

(i) Emerging stage at which schools begin to acquire computer equipment and software, administrators and teachers start to explore the possibilities and consequences of adding ICT for school management and the curriculum. At this level the school is still firmly grounded in traditional, teacher-centered practice.

(ii) Applying stage comes when schools begin to understand the potential contribution of ICT to learning and administrators and teachers begin to use ICT for tasks already carried out in school management and in the curriculum. Teachers still largely dominate the learning environment.

(iii) Infusing stage sees the acquisition of a range of computer-based technologies in laboratories, classrooms, and administrative areas. Teachers explore new ways in which ICT changes their personal productivity and professional practice. The curriculum begins to merge subject areas to reflect real-world applications.

(iv) Transforming stage when schools used ICT creatively to rethink and renew school organization. ICT becomes an integral though invisible part of the daily personal productivity and professional practice.

Majority of African higher institutions may be in transition from the emerging stage to the applying stage of ICT at the moment. According to a survey report conclusion by the Education Network for West and Central Africa (ERNWACA)-Nigeria (2003), ICT in tertiary institutions in Nigeria has only just started to be applied in education holistically. It has not been harnessed sufficiently yet to be effective in bringing about the changes that are required in present day globalization of education. It is therefore critical to assess the impact of ICT on universities especially African universities. This is done through the concept of e-Readiness.

Empirical Review

“Distance education is planned learning that normally occurs in a different place from teaching, requiring special course designs, instructional techniques, communication through various technologies, and special organizational and administrative arrangements” (Moore & Kearsley, 2008, p. 2). Consequently, distance education has always been driven by some form of technology and in recent times by computer technology and the Internet. This has produced ground-breaking experiences in teaching and learning at a distance (Moore & Kearsley, 2008).

Studies on e-learning readiness provide a good opportunity for institutions and companies to evaluate institutional preparedness before the implementation of new technologies because of the high investment costs on both the financial and the organizational side (Schreurs, Gelan, & Sammour, 2003). Furthermore, keeping in mind a broader view of e-learning readiness, its importance and implications, the Economist Intelligence Unit, in co-operation with IBM embarked on a study of 195 countries in 2003, which investigated the availability and use of the Internet at work, at school, in government and throughout society. The study explored various sectors such as Government, Industry, Education and Society using e-readiness criteria comprising of the 4 “C” components, which are Connectivity, Capability, Content and Culture. The research findings produced e-Learning Readiness Rankings of 185 countries (Economist Intelligence, 2003).

The body of literature in the field shows that a few studies exists; for example, studies at the University of Botswana investigated the institution for e-learning readiness, the attitudes of academic staff and students’ perception towards e-learning (Tella, 2007). Also, in Ghana there was a study on students’ experiences and perceptions of online learning which reported that students had negative attitudes to web-based learning (Asunka, 2008). Meanwhile, a study at the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria showed a positive attitude of students to web-based learning and the research findings showed that about a quarter of students had personal computers, 87% had access to computers even they had no personal computers, about 91% used e-mails and the Internet, and 41% were comfortable with the quality of Internet services provided by private cybercafés (Awoleye & Siyanbola, 2008). Another study on the use of media by distance education students in Nigeria, indicated that face-to-face contact and print-based media were the major distance education delivery methods used for teaching and learning in the country and in the Sub-Saharan region (Butcher, 2003; Yussuf & Falade, 2005).

However, online learning is not for every student but it is a good option for independent learners who possess good organizational and technical skills. Before students embark on online learning, there is the need for students to do self-assessments to determine whether they possess suitable characteristics for successful online learning. Online learning readiness scales allow students rate themselves in several important aspects of web-based learning, such as ability to avoid distractions, knack for adoption of new technologies, good goal setting capabilities, etc. There are e-learning readiness assessment tools for evaluating institutional readiness – students, staff and facilities, etc., for online learning. For example, “Teaching and Learning with Technology: Student Readiness for Online Learning Self-Assessment” is an assessment tool developed and deployed by Pennsylvania State University (Williams & Pennsylvania State University, 2008) and has been employed also by other educational institutions in the US (Madison Area Technical College, 2010).

Consequently, before embarking on technology-mediated learning, it is proper to evaluate students’ e-learning readiness, in terms of their organizational, computer and technical skills that are appropriate for online learning, and by using quality assessment tools developed to meet industry standards. Therefore, this study seeks to evaluate students’ readiness for e-learning in Nigeria using assessment scales modified and developed by the researcher to meet industry standards (Williams and Pennsylvania State University, 2008).

Theoretical Framework

Theoretical Background of ODL

Keegan (cited in Simonson et. al., 1999) classified theories of distance education into three groups: theories of independence and autonomy, theories of industrialization of teaching, and theories of interaction and communication.

Theory of Independence and Autonomy

Wedemeyer, who proposes the theory of independence and autonomy, highlights that the core of ODL is learner independency and thus a(Simonson et al. 2009). Emphasising the characteristics of independent study systems such as separation and time, the earlier definitions of ODL can be said to be built on this theory. As Gunawardena and McIsaac(2003) states Wedemeyer's vision of independent study was consistent with self-directed learning and self- regulation.

Theory of Industrialization

Otto Peters' view of distance education was as an industrialised form of teaching and learning. He compared distance education with the industrial production of goods. He also claims that before the industrial age distance education couldn't have existed. From this aspect, Peters (1988) proposed a new terminology, which heavily highlights the concepts from industrialisation for the analysis of distance education: Rationalization, Division of Labor, Mechanization, Assembly Line, Mass Production, Preparatory Work, Planning, Organization, Scientific control methods, Formalization, Standardization, Change of Function, Objectification, Concentration and Centralization. As Simonson et al. (2006) states, division of labor is the key element of distance education and with the help of ''mechanization'' and ''automation'', teaching process in Peters' theory has been updated.

Theory of Interaction and Communication

Borje Holmberg’s theory of distance education, what he calls “guided didactic conversation”, falls into the general category of communication theory (Schlosser & Simonson 2009, p.43). As Simonson et al. (2006) justifies, at first Holmberg proposed seven background assumptions and in 1995 these assumptions were extended. Accordingly, the theory consists of eight parts:

1. Distance education serves individual learners who cannot or do not want to make use of face-to-face teaching.
2. Distance education promotes students’ freedom of choice and independence.
3. Society benefits from distance education.
4. Distance education is an instrument for recurrent and lifelong learning and for free access to learning opportunities and equity.
5. Distance education may inspire metacognitive approaches.
6. Distance education is based on deep learning as an individual activity
7. Distance education is open to behaviorist, cognitive, constructivist and other modes of learning.
8. Personal relations, study pleasure and empathy between students and those supporting them are central to learning in distance education. All in all, Holmberg (1986) highlights that the dialogue between the learner and the teacher as the basic characteristic of distance education and states that guided conversation facilitates learning.