A CRITICALLY INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECT OF PAY SATISFACTION ON TEACHER’S COMMITMENT IN SOME SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Theoretical Framework
Several theories could be used to guide this study. However, this study adopted Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory and Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory. Generally, these theories emphasize that when people are deprived of their needs, they become deficient in something that they consider important to their well being. A need is therefore created and strategy for correcting the behaviour is activated. A need is defined as a measured discrepancy between actual and defined situation. These theories have provided framework for a discussion in this study.
2.2.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory maintains that there are several types of human needs; physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization that must be satisfied before a person can act unselfishly. He called these needs “deficiency needs.” As long as human are motivated to satisfy these needs, they move towards growth in self-actualization. Bannel and Akyeampong (2007) comments that, satisfying a need is healthy; dissatisfaction of these needs makes people unwilling to work. The needs must be satisfied and should be satisfied or else people become sick. Maslow (1954) argued that human motives are based on needs, some needs are primary whereas others are secondary. Primary needs include requirement for water, air, food, clothing and shelter. Secondary needs include such needs as esteem, status, affiliation with others, affection, accomplishment and self actualization. However these needs differs over a period of time among teachers. That is to make sure that they get primary human needs to guarantee themselves with adequate nourishment and protection from harm.
The context aspect of work sample, work conditions, government policy and salary identified in the review serve only to reduce dissasfication in the lower order needs identified by Maslow. They cannot lead to growth or dissatisfaction. The context aspect of teaching, for example are achievement, recognition and work itself which correspond to esteem and self-actualization. The highest factor of Maslow’s hierarchy; psychological growth and satisfaction depend upon successful job completion so only factors that are context centered, intrinsic aspects of the teaching and learning process can contribute to satisfaction.
According to Maslow’s theory, when the deficiency needs have not been acheived at one level, other higher needs emerge and these, rather than the lower order needs dominate. When these inturn are satisfied again new and still higher needs emerge and so on. As one desire in satisfied another comes up to take its place.
Maslow’s need hierarchy theory is considered as a valuable framework for understanding motivation since it includes in its analysis of social needs, for example love, esteem need as well as basic financial needs. The theory however, suffers the shortcoming that needs are difficult to explain and also lack empirical support substantially (Hoy & Miskel, 2001). The fact that the base is broader than the apex is because majority of teachers lie in the first level position and fewer actually appear at the apex due to the complicated nature of the higher level needs. School managers who use Maslow’s hierarchy of needs attempted to change their organisations and management practices so that employees’ needs could be satisfied.
2.2.2 Herzberg’s two factor (motivation –hygiene) theory
The two factor theory (also called motivation- hygiene) was proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg in 1968 in his book titled, “work and the nature of man.” Herzberg’s two factor theory of motivation suggests that there are two sets of factors which either led to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. They are motivation factors and hygiene factors. Herzberg collected data from 200 accountants and teachers asking a simple question such as “Can you describe, in detail, when you feel exceptionally good about your job”? Similarly, Can you describe, in detail, when you feel exceptionally bad about your job? Good feelings about the job were reflected in comments concerning the content and experiences of the job (e.g. doing work or a feeling of accomplishment and challenge), bad feelings about the job were associated with context factors, that is those surrounding but not direct involving in the work itself (e.g. salary and pay satisfaction). This study revealed two distinct types of motivational factors: satisfiers and dissatisfies.
2.3 Implications for school teachers and managers
In order to motivate employees, the managers must first provide the hygiene factor and then follow the motivating factors. Herzberg’s motivation- hygiene theory proposed that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and motivation, whereas extrinsic factors are associated with job dissatisfaction.
In addition, Herzberg (1959) indicated that the factors that led to job satisfaction were separate and distinct from those that led to job dissatisfaction and could bring about workplace harmony but not necessarily motivation. Because they do not motivate employees, the extrinsic factors that create job dissatisfaction were called hygiene factors. When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied; but at the same time they may not be fully satisfied. They will be in neutral state. If managers want to motivate people on their jobs, it is suggested to give much importance on those job content factors such as opportunities for personal growth, recognition, responsibility, and achievement. These are the characteristics that people find intrinsically rewarding. Despite these criticisms, Herzberg’s theory has been widely popularized as a case in point of the initial enthusiasm for enriching jobs by allowing teachers greater responsibility in planning and controlling their work. This can probably be attributed largely to his findings and recommendations.
2.5 Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction represents one of the most important areas of work motivation (Dinham and Scott, 2004). Job satisfaction is simply defined as the effective orientation that an employee has towards his or her work (Price, 2001). Job satisfaction is a teachers sense of achievement and success on the job. Job satisfaction is an emotion, a feeling, an attitude and a matter of perception that result from an employee appraisal at work, (Robbins, 1998). It is also defined as an emotional situation related to the positive or negative judgment of job experiences. On the other hand, Mowday, Porker & Steer, (1982) argued that job satisfaction is personal assessment of individual; for his/her job and work context.
Teacher job satisfaction is determined by the degree to which the individual perceives job related needs are being met (Karpin, 1995). Single as well as several factors measures can be used to measure job satisfaction, such anonymous employee satisfaction surveys administered in areas such as empowerment, teamwork, communication and co-teachers interaction. Satisfaction of human resource finds close link to a highly motivated employees. Motivated staff then develops loyalty or commitment to an institution resulting to greater commitment and lower turnover rates.
Brudett and Smith (2003) in a study based on a sample of 57 schools in England and Wales concluded that those learning institutions with abundant learning and teaching resource, favorable student- teacher ratio, commendable workload and good reward and incentive for teachers performance with better compared to learning institutions which do not provide the same.
It is generally perceived to be directly linked to commitment as well as to personal well-being. Job satisfaction further implies enthusiasm and happiness with ones’ work. It is the key ingredient that leads to recognition, income, promotion and the achievement of other goals that lead to a feeling of fulfillment (Kaliski, 2007). Job satisfaction also means a collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their current job. Peoples’ level or degree of job satisfaction can range from extreme satisfaction to extreme dissatisfaction. In addition to having attitudes about their jobs as a whole, people also have attitudes about various aspects of their jobs such as the kind of work they do, their coteachers, supervisors or subordinates and their pay (George & Jones, 2008). Okumbe (1998) argued that job satisfaction of teachers has been a focus of debate for educational researchers this is because of links between job satisfaction and organizational behavior such as commitment, absenteeism, and turnover, efficiency and commitment. Okumbe (1998) argued that teachers were concerned with their working environment for their personal comfort as well as facilitating their efficiency at work.
2.5 Teachers pay satisfaction
This section of the study looks at the concepts under the independent variables and their relationship with the dependent variable.
2.5.1 Pay and job satisfaction
pay satisfaction and work environment in a job greatly determine job satisfaction level of teachers. teachers are concerned with their work environment for their personal comfort as well as for facilitating efficiency at work. Ellis and Dick (2002) have suggested that the status pay satisfaction of teaching had to be improved in ways compared to other college graduates. For example, most secondary school teachers have limited access to an office, computer, telephone, or security. Compensation is also not comparable to job requiring similar levels of education and activity and the work load is large that it denies many, if not most teachers the right to excel in teaching without undue hardship and personal sacrifice.
An employee’s overall satisfaction in his job is the result of a combination of factors. The management’s role is to enhance an employee’s job satisfaction by creating positive work environment (Allen & Meyer, 1990). Okumbe (1998) says that teachers were concerned with their work environment for their personal comfort as well as for facilitating efficiency at work. The environment should be clean, modern with adequate and appropriate tools for work. Providing commitment tools such as upgraded information technology helps employee accomplish task more effectively contributing to job satisfaction (Darling Hammond, 2001). The employees’ morale will be high in tasks they are assigned to do. Mbugua (1998) states that work environment is made up of a range of factors including institutional culture, management styles, hierarchies and human resources policies. Employee satisfaction is the degree to which employees feel personally fulfilled and contented in their job roles. Employee turnover is the rate at which employees leave their employers, whether voluntarily or otherwise. These three distinct concepts are inseparably linked; workplace environment greatly influence employee satisfaction, which in turn directly affects employee turnover rates.
In the Kenyan context, the situation of high teacher turnover is not any different from the global and regional trends (Orodho & Waweru, 2013). Not only is there a shortage of qualified teachers in Kenyan schools, but also teachers are leaving the profession to take up non-teaching employment (Oketch & Ngware, 2012).
According to Orodho and Waweru (2013), knowing how to use a positive work environment to increase employee satisfaction and reduce turnover is a key for developing a high performance workforce. Any teacher would desire pay satisfaction that will result into greater physical comfort and convenience. The absence of such pay satisfaction among other things can impact poorly on working mental physical well-being, (Robbins, 2000). Robbins goes further to advocate that pay satisfaction will influence job satisfaction as employees are concerned with a comfortable physical working environment which influences job satisfaction. He goes further to say that fairness is an equal treatment receiving the same services and benefits as competent leaders are essential to the success of the school.
VSO Ethiopia (2010:40) commented on how lack of basic amenities such as desks, chairs, tables, benches, made the teaching more difficult. “If there aren’t enough desks and benches, chairs and tables the teacher is suffering and the teaching process is not good”. Leshao (2008) found out that in Kenya Free Primary Education was introduced without prior preparation and teachers had a feeling that the lack of preparation was a cause of low motivation. Findings by Sogomo (1993) in the study on job satisfaction of secondary school principals in the Rift Valley Province of Kenya were similar. He proposed that the work environment in the school should be such that it enhances teacher’s sense of professionalism and in turn decreases their dissatisfaction. The work characteristics for the teachers that are associated with job dissatisfaction should be identified in order to change the working environment for continuous job satisfaction.
2.6 Impact of Pay Satisfactions on Teachers Performance
2.6.1 Academic performance
One of the challenges facing government secondary schools is to archive academic excellence. This academic performance is associated with many factors. However teachers pay satisfaction have been considered as among the factors (Crossman & Harris, 2006). A major perception of developed countries on school effectiveness is that of achieving better learning outcomes depended fundamentally on improvements in teaching. Although there are many factors that affect learning outcomes, teaching is the main school-level determinant of school performance.
Thus, ways to improve teachers pay satisfaction and job satisfaction are central to any systematic attempt to improve learning outcomes. A considerable amount of research has been conducted on what makes the ‘effective teacher’. Yet, the focus on policy reform in most countries has been on improving learning outcomes through better allocation of resources, more accountability, curriculum reform and better pre-and in-service training. However, the limited impact of many of these interventions has focused politicians and policy makers to focus increasingly on needs of teachers.
2.6.2 Teacher absenteeism, lateness and turnover
The living conditions of teachers are worsened by lack of appropriate accommodation to live in and long distance which sometimes, cause absenteeism, lateness and turnover. The physical environments of the schools are not attractive. Babyegeya (2002) explained that in other schools lack of houses resulted into ineffective teaching and learning processes.
The indication of dissatisfaction at work place include low output and commitment, frustration and unrest in the work place, deviant and violent behavior at or outside the work place, frequent confrontations or argument within supervisors and managers, non-cooperation, strike and violent demonstrations and finally increasing of absenteeism among teachers and excessive turnover (Halder, 2010). Mwamwenda (1995) found that a lack of job satisfaction resulted in frequent teacher absenteeism from school, aggressive behavior towards colleagues and learners, early exits from the teaching profession, and psychological withdraw from the work. Mwamwenda also highlighted the cost implications that resulted from absenteeism, not only for the employer, but also for society as a whole. Ngimbudzi (2009) observes that the manifestation of job satisfaction has implication for the teachers as well as for the educational system in which he or she is employed. The different attitudes of the teacher, his or her physical well-being, absenteeism and turnover, as well as success in profession, are all dependent on degree of job satisfaction experienced by the teacher.
2.6.3 Accountability of teachers
The degree to which teachers are properly accountable to their children, the parents and their head of school, the district and the national level managers has a powerful influence on teacher working environment and job satisfaction level. In many areas there is poor accountability and low levels of commitment that leads to movement of teachers from the allocated centers. In South Asia, in particular, the accountability culture is very weak. The politicization of the teaching profession is perhaps the single most important reason for low teacher accountability and it affects nearly every aspect of job satisfaction including recruitment, deployment, promotions and management control (Orodho & Waweru, 2013).
2.7 Related Empirical Studies
Studies on job satisfaction among teachers have been done both internationally and locally. A report by House of Commons Educational and Skills Committee (2004) showed that very many teachers in Britain were resigning from their posts, most had expressed a desire to leave the profession over the next five years and recruitment had declined dramatically. Further, the report notes that teachers are said to leave service citing dissatisfaction on the pay and pay satisfaction.
In China, teacher retention has been of great concern. According to Sargent and Hannum (2003:54) teaching jobs in China have become increasingly varied in their compensation and at the same time good teachers have gained greater flexibility to move to better jobs in other sectors. These changes have increased the career choices of individuals, but they also mean that schools serving poor rural communities face new challenges in retaining qualified teachers.
In many developing countries and particularly in Africa, employment policy in general and specifically the education employment policy have long taken into account the need to satisfy teachers’ needs and to satisfy the teachers (Werner & Desimone, 2006). Onu, Madukwe and Agwu (2005) examined factors affecting job satisfaction of field extension teachers in Enugu State Agricultural Department Program in Nigeria using a sample of 43 extension staff randomly selected across three agricultural zones. The field extension teachers indicated low level of satisfaction with their job content, conditions of service and working environment, which were subsequently identified as key factors that could enhance job satisfaction among employees.
In research by Mwamwenda (1995) cited in Nyagaya (2015) on the factors influencing job satisfaction among secondary schools white teachers in South Africa, the variables that emerged from these studies were aspects pertaining to pay satisfaction, interpersonal relations with managers, colleagues and learners, professional development, management styles and community involvement. Factors affecting job satisfaction among white teachers covered a broad spectrum and including intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors.
Under the Kenyan situation, job satisfaction and good quality work from the employer and the employee respectively dictates the performance of organizations (Chen & Li, 2002). Staff movement of either joining or leaving an organization is one of the many indicators or pointers of the employees’ satisfaction or dissatisfaction which may also mean high or low staff motivation. Mutie (1993) in his research on satisfaction of secondary school administrators and teachers in Kitui, Kenya revealed that qualified teachers leave teaching because they are dissatisfied with poor pay and compensation, poor methods of promotion, inadequate opportunities for career advancement, poor public image and unsatisfactory conditions. Okumbe (1992) in his study of levels of job satisfaction among graduate teachers in Siaya, Kenya noted that the low levels of job satisfaction was due to factors such as poor remuneration, method of promotion, poor pay satisfaction and work environment. Other factors included job security, recognition and workload. The teacher being an instrument of success requires physical, psychological, economic and social comfort.
Nyagaya (2015) conducted a study on the factors influencing teacher’s level of job satisfaction in public primary schools in Kayole division, Embakasi sub county, Kenya on 20 public primary schools with 220 respondents using descriptive research design. The study revealed that remuneration influenced positively teachers’ level of job satisfaction. Concerning pay satisfaction, the study concluded that the inadequacy of school facilities led to teachers’ dissatisfaction with their job. The number of lessons taught per week (workload) also affected teachers’ level of job satisfaction.
In Namibia, a study by George, Louw and Badenhorst (2000) on job satisfaction among urban secondary school teachers used survey design and descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviations). The findings indicated that Namibian teachers experienced a lower level of job satisfaction compared to an American norm group, in terms of findings by Maslach and Jackson (1986). The study also indicates that, approximately two-thirds of the Namibian teachers experienced high levels of dissatisfaction with intrinsic factors, while nearly 90% experienced an attitude towards extrinsic factors that varied from neutral to satisfy