EFFECTS OF COUNSELING SERVICES ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

CHAPTER II

Review of Related Literature

Guidance and counseling activities in each level of education is expected to contribute to the achievement of educational goals.

However, when education goals are not been achieved, the foremost place to look into is the available guidance services rendered, how effective was it?

These chapters examine the various view of some authors on the meaning, purpose and essence of guidance and counseling service in school. The view and the findings of previous research works related to thus study shall be assessed under the following sub – heading:

• The concept of guidance and counseling
• Brief history and development of guidance and counseling in Nigeria.
• Disparity between guidance and counseling
• Review of guidance practices of the national policy on education
• Need for guidance and counseling in Nigerian schools.
• The school guidance services
• Problems militating against effective guidance as discussed by other researchers/scholars
• Summary of the chapter

Concept of Guidance and Counseling

Various authors have used the term “guidance” and “counseling” either to the mean differently things or to mean the same thing. Due to this, many texts use the term interchangeable. However, the general consensus amongst professionals in that guidance is an umbrella names for all the helping services. To a layperson, guidance simply means to guide or direct some one toward a certain goal but to the professional guidance counselor, it involves a much deeper meaning (Oladele, 1987).

Guidance

Ipaye (1983) sees guidance as an umbrella term which covers all the means whereby an institution identifies and responds to the individual needs of students, thereby helping the individual to develophis/her maximum potentials.

Durojaiye (1972) view guidance as a complex process that encompasses the total needs of the individual student to be directed or guided. The, he said is available to the individual’s educational, emotional, vocational, health, social and physical needs as well as the individuals preparation for a suitable occupation or career.

Various authors, collectively view guidance as:

• A concept (mental image) which connotes the utilization of a view to help an individual.
• An educational construct (intellectual synthesis) refers to the provision of experiences that helps students understand themselves.
• A service (action taken to meet a demand) involves the processes organized to achieve a helping situation.
• (Idowu, 1998)

Guidance is perceived as a process because it involves a series of actions or steps progressively moving towards a goal.

Help entails assisting to reduce human difficulties, “individuals” refers to students in a school setting or client, in a non – school setting.

Understanding of self and world menas coming to known who they are as individuals, becomes aware of their personal identity, perceive clearly the nature of their person and the person and the people with whom they interact. As individuals, they should be able to know what opportunities are open for them in their world.

The assumption is that individuals who understand themselves and their world will become more effective, more productive and happier human beings (Adams, 1998) through guidance individual achieve greater awareness not only of who they are but also of who they can become.

Guidance is no a haphazard activity but a planned and systematic approach towards helping the individuals to be able to make wise choices or decisions. Guidance aims at aiding the recipient to grow in his independence and ability to be responsible for himself. It is seen as a service that is universal, not confined to the school or family. It is found in all phase of life, in the business, industry, hospital, in homes, government and anywhere there are people who need help the central idea of these definition is that it does not dictate solution to the individuals. Realizing that with appropriate guidance the counselee direct himself.

Inferring from the definitions of guidance, it is clear that is purpose is to help students understand the totality of their personal experiences, the opportunities available as well as the choice open to them and also helping them to recognize, interpret and act upon their personal weaknesses, strengths and resources.

Understanding oneself can effectively lead to a student’s wise choice of curriculum options and appropriate occupational aspiration that would lead to the discovery and development of potentials for personal happiness first and then social usefulness.

Counseling

Counseling involves a wide range of procedures including advice giving, support in times of need or trouble, information giving encouragement and test interpretation. Counseling is perceived as part of the guidance programme involving a more personalized process that involves a one – on – one relationship or small groups. Counseling deals more intensively wit personal and emotional issues, it is very private and confidential.

Counseling as defined by Olayinka (1972) is a process in which one person assists another in a face – to – face encounter. The assistance may take many forms ranging from educational, emotional to vocational. Mankinde (1985) defines counseling as an enlightened process whereby people help other people to facilitate growth, development as well as positive change through an exercise self – understanding Blocher (1966) said counseling means help an individual become more fully aware of himself and the ways he is responding to the influences, it is obvious that counseling is an integral part of guidance, it is termed “the heart of guidance” while other aspects of guidance may be concerned with the provision and interpretation of information. Counseling is concerned with the feeling, attitude and emotional dispositions of an individual concerning himself and the situations facing him (Idowu, 1998). Counseling is a process which involves bringing about subsequent changes over a period of time, leading to a set of goals which is characterized by warmth, responsiveness and understanding. Educational counseling is a process of apply psychological knowledge in helping the learner, the teacher and all concerned with the delivery of the planned curriculum content; understand the learner and the environment in which he learns so that he can achieve what he is capable of achieving (Kolo, 1999). Conclusively, selling involves a direct contact with the principal, teachers and students which aims to offer assistance. It is therefore, a unique experience shared by the counselor and the counselee with emphasis on mutual trust, building a cordial relationship and respect for human growth and development.

Disparity between Guidance and Counseling

There has been disputes even amongst professionals as to whether there are actually difference between guidance and counseling. The attempts to differential between the two has not met notable degree of success (Shertzer and stone, 1994). They argued that the distinctions are only artificial and should be used interchangeably. However, Kolo, 1992:5 identified those basic differences.

1. Guidance is broad involving services aimed at assisting people to make and carry out adequate plans, to achieve satisfactory adjustment in – life, while counseling is seen as an integral part of guidance.
2. Guidance looks at the total needs of the individual making it a complex process but counseling entails one understanding self so as to solve his own problems, guidance will help the individual who he/she is while counseling assesses ones capability.
3. Guidance is controlled by the counselor i.e. the counselor is in charge while in counseling the counselor is not the decision make, he is only a facilitator, he shows the counselee the available options and allow him make his choice unlike in guidance where the counselor could help him or pivot him towards decision making.
4. In guidance, the counselor determines objectives and methods to be used in the course of guidance white in counseling, the client and counselor jointly negotiates a contract about agenda and methodology.
5. Assessment, diagnosis and evaluation of guidance process is in the domain of the counselor while in counseling the client also participates in assessing needs and evaluating progress.
6. In guidance, learning is seen as specific to the problem in question while in counseling, learning is seen a transferable, what is learnt in one is been utilized in another.
7. Guidance does not regard feelings as important in learning but counseling sees learning as an emotional as well as a cognitive process.

Despite these differences, Ribah (2001) however explain that guidance and counseling is a twin concept that are expected to work together in order to help an individual to build a satisfactory and effective situation to his/her problems. He also maintained that both guidance and counseling requires working together to produce the required services. He argued that guidance and counseling are inseparable, if they much achieve the needed aim of goal helping.

Brief History and Development of Guidance and Counseling in Nigeria

Africa communities had always had their own guidance counselors that fitted into their own cultures, usually guidance counseling was carried out by traditional helpers who help people solve their personal problems (Oken, 1984). Mankinde (1983) in Idowu (1998) identified these traditional helpers in the various African cultures as Dibia and Ogabfu amongst the Igbos, Babalawo amongst the Yorubas, Uzenakpo amongst the Ibibios, and Obozi amongst the Tive – Igalas in Nigeria. (Across Africa, Bugisu – Ugandas) calls them Omufunmu, Tanzania use Nganga and Malagsy says its Sikidy.

Modern guidance commenced in Nigeria in 1958 when a group of catholic reverend sisters in St. Theresa’s College, Ibadan recognized the need to give adequate career or vocational guidance to their final year students. So in 1958, the sisters assisted by Mrs. Oruwariye, invited interested and enlightened members of the society to the school. They invited professionals who had made their marks in their various professions to give career talks on their field.

At the end of the exercise most of the student (54 out of 60) were able to select good jobs or higher institutions of learning.

This motivated other schools in other big towns and Ibadan in particular, to start organizing career talks for their senior students. Soon after, there was a crop of “career masters and mistresses” and interested teachers who were assigned job of collation and dissemination of career information to students. The groups of professional invited were not vocational guidance counselors but they were able to help well. In October 1961, the Ibadan Career Council (ICC) was formed and by 1967, many schools in Nigeria had joined the ICC which was later changed to Nigerian Career Council (NCC). In 1961, the federal ministry of education published a booklet written by C.I Berepikki, Titled “An Approach to guidance in the schools” by March 1963, formalized guidance programme was introduced at he Comprehensive High School, Aiyetoro in Ogun State.

Another factor that contributed to the development of counseling in Nigeria in the 1970s was the testing movement among which were the West African Examination Council (WAEC) Oladele (1987). In 1976, the federal government officially recognized the need for guidance and counseling in Nigeria, hence it became compulsory for everyone in teacher education programme to undertake guidance and counseling courses.

The Counseling Association of Nigeria (CAN) was lunched on December 11, 1976. this became the professional body responsible for the welfare of all career masters and guidance counselor in Nigeria. CAN was later changed to CASSON (Counseling Association of Nigeria at the Annual General Meeting of the 16th National Annual Conference of the Association held at Bayero University Kano in August, 1992). This change in Acronym is to differentiate it from the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) (Idowu 1998)

Review of Guidance practices of the National Poliucy on Education

The Nigerian new policy on education came into existence in 1982 and introduced the 6-3-3-4 system of education.

According to the new National Policy on education of 1982, the 6-3-3-4 systems is to bring sanity on our educational programmes with guidance and counselors as its watch dog at all stages of the education programmes. This policy is designed to provide a uniform system of education throughout the country and set the nation on its onward match towards technological development.

It is noteworthy that the proposals and objectives of the national policy on education will not be meaningful achieved without the maximum utilization of the services of qualified professionals and efficient counselors. The counselors are expected, at every segment of the system to explain to students, the importance as well as relevance of all the academic and vocational subjects in the school to their individual lives. It is the guidance counselor that should make the students aware of the courses available in tertiary institutions and the minimum qualifications required for these courses.

The counselor should be able to wisely guide the student towards choosing a particular career judging from some inherent skills, abilities and aptitude observed in the student. A well trained and efficient counselor known how to keep the necessary records that would enable him/her to identify these inherent abilities of a student such records may include record of achievements, test, behavioral patters etc.

During the first three years of the junior secondary school, the effective services of the school counselors’ are needed. The counselors are required to be alert at all times observing the students during school assembly, normal classes, so that he/she would take note of the students lasting personal characteristic which can be observed as the students go about their normal activities (Okom, 1983).

It is part of the professional responsibilities of a school counselor to organize regular individual and group counseling sessions between these students and the counselor. During these discussions their potentials and ambitions can be discovered and effectively guided.

Need for Guidance and Counseling in Nigeria Schools

In the secondary schools today education has long been comprehensive, offering a wide and sometimes confusing range of subjects to may different individual’s students thus the need for guidance services cannot be over – emphasized. The large number of students entering high school today also suggests that talents must be identified early and careful guidance given so that it could lead to the students effective academic and vocational achievement.

The needs and factors that necessitated the introduction of guidance and counseling services in school as highlighted by Okon (1984) include the fact that Nigeria is Undergoing a rapid social change, he observed an unfortunate situation where children and adults are ill prepared to cope with the consequences of his social change, therefore he is of the view that all young people needs increasing assistance and maximum strength to adapt to change and become responsible citizens.

Okon also identified the need for a skilled work force, which requires that people are properly guided into areas where jobs are available. It is a well known fact that national development efforts are limited by the acute shortage of skilled workforce in almost all major occupational categories. This implies that although there are educated people, their education is not relevant to the job vacancies available which is due to the apparent lack of knowledge about work options and career alternatives, (Omotosho, 1998)

He also noted that the growing needs of youth in the country is due to the rapid change going on in the adolescent’s private world as well as in the world of work around him calls for careful planning and guidance so that chances of errors will be greatly reduced.

The expansion in the enrolment of pupils or students in primary and post primary schools from 1960 to when Nigeria gained independence lead Fafunwa (1990) to state thus “Mandatory Student guidance and Counseling services should be established in all Nigerian institution of higher learning and through such services, the true conditions of the Nigeria economy and its ever changing labour market situation and requirements would be exposed to students’ choice of fields and skill of study and calculating in them the acceptance of the dignity and more superior option of leaving institutions of higher learning well prepared both as possible paid employees of others and creators of jobs for self and others, in both the formal and the informal sectors of the economy” (P16).

Closely related to the above is the rising unemployment of graduates at all levels of educations, which might be attributed to lack of organized and functional guidance services at the disposal of students in various institutions of learning. The repeated changes on the educational system has also not helped issues, since after independence, Nigeria has witness a number of changes in the education sector. In some time past, we practiced the 8-4-2-3 system which will soon be replaced by yet another system. Those changes have only caused confusion for the individual which demands the guidance services.

Several unrest in the universities and other tertiary institutions which probably results from the varying reasons for which students go to school, some students simply wants to socialized; not even knowing what courses to take, what subject combinations they need, how to plan time and develop appropriate study skills. This mix up of people needs counseling services to help in the adjustment problem. Also is the repeated changes in the education system, school year has changed repeatedly during the last few years. At one point, we were operating a school year from January to December, which was later changed to September to June. Currently there are moves to go back to January to December school calendar year. All these changes are capable of disrupting the academic planning of youths, their plans and vocational needs.

Rise different shades of examination malpractice in Nigeria involving students, teachers, parents, examination bodies and the society necessitates guidance and counseling at all levels of education in the country. The counselor should make all those involved in examination malpractices aware of the punishment involved, Abubakar et al 2001.

The problem of national integration has been rocking Nigerian for a very long time. Three major linguistic groups, the Hausas, Igbos and Yorubas are found in the three main regions – Northern Eastern and western parts of the country respectively. Each group and section of the consequence is clamoring for a share in the national cake. The consequence has been political instability, religious intolerance, trial loyalties, and all forms of Vices which have militated against the development of the country. Okon (1984) has observed that the survival of Nigeria as a nation depends largely on our degree of tolerance not only of our ethnic or political differences but also of our religious differences. Our economic, social and political stability depends, to a large extent, on the ability of every citizen to possess some measure of common understanding, attitudes, beliefs, skills and purposes. These attributes can be inculcated in youths very early in their educational development. Thus, the inevitability of guidance and counseling in this respect cannot be overemphasized.

The outrageous poor performance of students in examination is unacceptable Ribah (2001) stressed the need for trained and skillfully equipped guidance counselors in schools to find a way out of these problematic situations. Changes in homes and family life necessitate guidance since family influence the direction and development of interests, abilities, aptitudes and values of children.

The modern Nigerian home is characterized by number of changes, most parents probably due to the demands of their jobs pay very little attention to the development of their sons and daughters.

In view of the outlined factors ranging from various confusing subjects, rapid social changes, need for a skilled workforce, increase in poor performance in examination has made the provision of guidance and counseling services in schools very necessary and cannot be overemphasized.

The School Guidance Service

Guidance services refer to those services or professional aid given to individuals or small groups of persons while dealing with commonly recurring personal educational and vocational needs and problems, (Umoh, 1998). After a survey of guidance literature, the consensus discovered is probably that guidance services most frequently provided in schools are as follows.

1. Orientation
2. Appraisal
3. Information
4. Planning and placement services
5. Follow – up research and evaluation services
6. Referral
7. Counseling

Orientation

This service entails getting an individual acquainted to a new environment. It involves activities provided to the students in helping them to adjust to school environment and experience. New student coming into the school finds the environment entirely new, not only in features but also in some other characteristics which may be confusing. Inability to make adequate adjustment may have serious negative consequences on the part of the student.

Through orientation service, such new students are introduced to physical plant facilities in their new school environment, rules and regulations, administrative setup, school clubs and societies etc. through orientation, new student are made to adjust emotionally, socially, mentally and physically to their new environment.

Some of the activities that constitute orientation service include interactive sessions, group – lectures, film show field trips and visits to major sections of the school etc. (Kolo 1992). A good orientation service must be prior planned, speakers contacted early, participants well prepared and hall large enough to take all participants (Kolo 1992).

Appraisal Service

This service is used to collect information on the individual so as to help in the process of guidance and counseling. Appraisal service involves evaluating or assessing the individual to ascertain what he or she has or does not have. This service is important if the counselor would attempt an accurate diagnosis, hence design an effective counseling treatment plan for clients. Various methods of evaluation can be used such as use of psychological testing, observation or interviews.

The counselor determines method to be used which of course depends on the nature of the problems presented. Information derived about an individual can be used in making vital life decision and choices.

Information Service

This is very closely related to appraisal since they both involve information gathering, however, information involves gathering or collection of data for the client and not on the client as in appraisal.

This service is designed to enhance and broaden the opportunity awareness of students because it provides students with knowledge of educational, vocational and social opportunities do that they would be able to make information and enlightened decisions and choices. The basic goal of information service is to ensure that all vital decisions and choice of students are made on the basis of valid and reliable data information services aimed at development of borad and realistic of life’s opportunities, provision of a wider understanding of various aspects of life, promotes attitudes and interests in other alternative available etc.

Placement Service

The goal of this service is to assist student to secure appropriate placement in a programme of study. Work world, a treatment programme and a work study programme. Placement services must be based on good understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of students seeking placement. Since placement involve putting individuals in a position that best suits his or her interest, ability. Personality and even age, a lot of information or appraisal services must be carried out on individual students. Students can be placed in schools into classes, clubs and societies, halls of residence and even games and sports (Kolo, 1992).

Follow –up Research and Evaluation Service

This service seeks to determine the effectiveness of school guidance programme. Here attempts are made to evaluate the outcomes of school – guidance service s. some of the expected outcomes of school guidance service and enhanced academic performances of students better problems solving and decision making skills, decrease in truancy and improved school attendance, improved teachers – pupil relationship, and drop in school discipline problems, adaptive adjustment on the part of pupils are a host other positive outcomes.

The main focus of follow – up service is to ensure that school guidance is achieving the goals that it has set out to achieve. Akinde et al (1996).

Referral Service

Referral service is where the teachers or counselor refer student to other personnel to continue the service need by the student. Usually students are referred to another counselor due to

• When he/she stands to benefit more from there
• When the counselor cannot successfully handle the problems
• When client/student is not cooperating
• When time and resources are not available
• When student is either related or close to counselor that he/she may not be comfortable, (Kolo, 1992)

Counseling Service

This is a face to face contact between a counselor and the students to discuss the issues bothering the student and seeking for solution to the problem. The purpose of counseling service are;

• to provide a way of living happily with oneself and others
• to help individuals attain or reach their goals in life

Problems Militating against effective guidance

Every new thing, just like a baby has is “teaching” problems, a period when its reception and development may face obstacle, guidance and counseling is not an exception. The problems it faces could be grouped as those caused by man, materials and money. Although, the rational policy of education (1981), one would have expected the nation to embrace the discipline enthusiastically. However, the reverse is the case. It reception is received with suspicion and thus faced with the following problems.

Paucity of trained counselor

It is recommended that the ration of counselors to students shoud be 1:250. Denga (1985) say the ratio as at 1980 was 1:800. the situation could be worse. This is because the limited members of trained counselors are moving out of school setting into non – school settings due to the bad working conditions. A typical school with a population of 1,000 students is expected to have four counselors, such schools either has non or at best only one.

This poor counselor – student’s ratio does not encourage the growth of guidance and counseling in such schools.

Relative Newness of Guidance and Counseling in Nigeria

Western education was introduced into the country about 1842 but guidance and counseling was formally introduced in 1958, more than a century after. Educational instruction and administration has been entrenched in the educational system long before it. Some educational practitioners tend to view it as an intruder.

Doubt about the efficacy of guidance and counseling

Some persons or colleagues such as teachers, principals administrators doubt the efficacy of counseling. Psychology has really not attained the degree of precision found in the physical science, people are especially skeptical about reliance on its use.

These group of persons are of the opinion that adults are old enough to make decision for themselves, hence do not need guidance, rather children who are not yet ripe enough to make vital decisions for themselves. One may wonder if not the grown – up (Urubu, 1986 Akinade 1990).

Resistance by Colleagues and Principals

It has been observed by many guidance counselor that they often experience resistance from institutional heads, influential and significant members of staff of their establishments such officers often act in ways, which prevents the spread of counseling. Adeoye (1998) reported that counselors face resistance which might be stiff and persistent from principals and colleagues. Most times, counselors tend to be viewed with suspicion. Some institutional heads might be apprehensive that the counselor does not erode their prestige or popularity and power among students, parents and members of the public Kogi (1987).

Resistance of institutional heads may be reflected in their lukewarm poor or reluctant attitude in supporting the programme or refusal to formally introduce the counselor to other members of school staff.

Confidentiality

Issues of confidentiality is very pertinent in counseling, clients expect their secrets or privileged information to be kept secret of confidential and not exposed to others, however referral agents such as the principal teachers, peers and parents expect counselors to divulge such information to them. Failure of the counselor to do that may raise suspicion of his activities and revealing the secret leads to loss of faith in counselor and counseling.

Feeling of Suspicion of the Role and Integrity of Counselor

Some school personnel still see the counselor as having ulterior motives when a clients goes into the counseling room. This gives counselors negative or derogatory labels. This is more so where the other workers doubt the moral integrity of counselors who give individual counseling to young ones. This become more serious when a male counselor counsels a female students and gives the interaction high confidentiality.

Lack of Commitment of Government Officers

More needs to be done in terms of practical support and implementation of guidance and counseling which will help the growth of the profession, adequate planning is needed as well as strategies of evaluating the progress being made (Kolo, 1992)

Inadequate Funding

The profession is grossly under funded. Adequate funds are not allocated to schools to enable them run its various activities.

Even when funds available, only very little is apportioned to guidance and counseling purposes.

Lack of Counseling Office

Due to explosion of student’s population and inadequate numbers of classrooms, problems of space or office accommodation is very common in atypical school especially in urban centre. These usually translate to not having any room for the services. Through guidance may be given anywhere, it however, needs privacy to be effective.

Strategies for Improvement of Guidance Counseling

To improve on the type and quality of guidance services rendered the following may to be employed.

1. More guidance counselors should be trained and encouraged as well as effecting the posting of guidance counselors to secondary schools.
2. A clear cut distinction should be made between the role of guidance counselor and other members of staff (Makinde 1981)
3. More committed action of immense help to the growth of the profession, there should be a adequate planning that would map out both short and long term goals as well as strategies of evaluating the progress being made.
4. Effective counseling demands adequate funding to purchase items or materials needed as well as organize activities such as excursions, career day week etc. if government and other well meaning Nigerians can make some budgetary allocations to the profession, it will go a long way to boast the profession.
5. Guidance and counseling should be integrated into the training of Nigeria Teachers. This Implies that in the nearest futures guidance and counseling may be well established in the schools, with every teacher being adequately educated on guidance and counseling. By this the commonly reported rancor between counselors and teachers may be resolved.
6. Adequate equipment should be provided in schools for the students to have sufficient practical skill and technical knowledge to obtain employment in their vocational area of specialization.
7. Schools with large number of schools should be fair enough to employ adequate number of counselors, rather than engage the services of one counselor were eight counselors are needed! If the appropriate numbers of counselors are engaged then it makes guidance very effective and stress free.
8. The integrity of counselors should not be compromised by other members of the staff while trying to discharge their duties, they should be provided adequate counseling space to enforce privacy and discourage unnecessary suspicions.

Previous Research findings on guidance counseling

An early research work carried out by Adepoju (1995) in the then north central state, now Kaduna revealed the following;

1. Guidance programme was centrally planned and coordinated by the state ministry of education
2. Guidance teachers handling the programme were carefully selected for the possession of required qualities of a good guidance counselor.
3. Most teachers who combine teaching with guidance have no formal guidance training.

In a similar study by Bujowoye (1976) in analysis and appraisal of guidance services in Kaduna state’s secondary school shows that:

1. Kaduna state guidance programme was teacher oriented with a formal trained personnel on counseling.
2. Guidance teachers showed lukewarm attitude towards the programme which may be attributed to overwork, however, they expressed the opinion that guidance services were necessary for the successful achievement of the school objective.

Works by Kogi (1985), Elisha (1987) carried out in Kaduna and Pleateau states respectively revealed that;

1. Counseling personnel were untrained
2. Counseling units and personnel were unorganized.
3. Guidance counselors were actually teachers appointed by their principals to act as counselor thereby combining teaching and counseling.
4. There are no supervision of the counseling programme by the ministry of education, the counseling units, where they are found lacked necessary materials.

A close look at these research findings shows some similarities. This will attempt to access the state of things since these findings were made and to ascertain whether there have been any improvements over these two decades.

Summary of the chapter

This study has made attempt to discuss the meaning of guidance and counseling, the disparity between them, the need for guidance services in our schools. Schools guidance services have all been evaluated also are the problems militating against effective guidance as well as strategies for improvement of guidance counseling. The findings of other research works related to this study were examined. The aim of this study is therefore to make comparisons were necessary and conclusion between what has been and what is presently obtainable