TEACHERS EFFECTIVENESS ON PUPILS' PERFORMANCE IN PRIMARY SCHOOL
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents theoretical framework and relates literature reviewed for this study. The conceptual framework of this study is grounded in the functionalist conception of education, while the empirical studies reviewed revolve around the three objectives developed in chapter 1. These include: Teacher methodological competencies and their role in improving instructional processes; teachers‟ motivational competencies and students‟ performance; and teachers‟ instructional process competencies and its effect on teaching and learning.
2.2 Theoretical Framework
Functionalism: Education for the Good of the Society
Functionalism is the oldest, and still the most dominant, theoretical perspective in sociology and many other social sciences such as education. This perspective is built upon two emphases: application of the scientific method to the objective social world and use of an analogy between the individual „organism‟ and „society‟. According to Murphy (n.d), underlying functionalism is the fundamental metaphor of the living organism, its several parts and organs, grouped and organized into a system, the function of the various parts and organs being to sustain the organism, to keep its essential processes going and enable it to reproduce. Similarly, Jarvie (1973) opined that members of a society could be thought of as cells that institute organs whose function is to sustain the life of the entity, despite the frequent death of cells and the production of new ones.
Functionalist analyses examine the social significance of phenomena, that is, the purpose they serve a particular society in maintaining the whole. Whawo (1993), cited Hearn and von Bartalanffy (1959), saw society as an open system that maintains equilibrium through a feedback process or that portion of a system‟s output that is feedback to the input and affects succeeding outputs and adjusts future conduct by reference to the past. Heylighen and Joslyn (1992) saw functionalism as the „Trans- disciplinary‟ study of the abstract organization of phenomena, independent of their substance, type, or spatial or temporal scale of existence. Functionalism investigates both the principles common to all complex entities, and the (usually mathematical) models, which can be used to describe them. Schools are component parts of a system in the society and tend to maintain themselves in a steady state. A steady state occurs when a constant ratio is maintained among the components of the system, given continuous input to the system. A burning candle is often used as an example of a steady state. Upon being lighted, the flame is small, but it rapidly grows to its normal size and maintains the size as long as its candle and its environment exist. It is also self-regulatory; using the above illustration, a sudden drift will cause the flame to flicker, but with the ceasing of the drift, the flame regains its normal characteristics (Whawo, 1993).
Within this perspective, schooling is viewed as essential to society, in that it sorts and sifts above average students from average and below average students. It does this in order to ensure that the more talented students rise to the top of the socio-economic status system. Another major role of structural functionalism is that it teaches the skills and norms of society. Structural functionalists believe that in order for society
to remain a viable system all components must function together and thus require a system to instill similar beliefs and values to each member of that society. Those who excel in society are those who have worked the hardest for their position, a social phenomenon called meritocracy. According to Hurn “this is a society where ability and effort count for more than privilege and inherited status”.
Society needs the best and the brightest to function at the highest levels, and therefore it gives its highest rewards to this same group of people. Hurn also theorized that society functions much better economically when there is more education for the individual or for society at large An individual‟s acquisition of additional skills provides benefits to the society in which he lives. Hurn further stated that the more education there is the less likely there will be much inequality. Whereas, human capital theorists see education as an investment in which those who feel that the benefits of college outweigh the money are the ones that rise to the top of the socio- economic pyramid. Those who do not decide to further their education, then, are less deserving of the rewards that society has to offer. This is the basic fundamental way that functionalists see education.
Durkheim (1956, p. 71) felt that schools are there to teach morals to children. These morals are the ones that society has set up so that everyone is the same and need to be taught at school rather than in the home because there is too much bending of the rules at home whereas school is a colder environment. In teaching morals, the schools are also teaching children that they must become part of society and have ties to society or the child and society will break down. Durkeim concluded that these were the most important things that school could give to its children, a sense of belonging
to a larger society. In Talcott Parson‟s opinion, a school‟s main function is to socialize children by using the idea of commitments. There are two types of commitments, commitment to the implementation of the broad values of society and commitment to the performance of a specific type of role within the social structure (Parsons, 1959).
Presenting the functions of education from the sociological aspect, Carr and Kemmis (1986) drew attention to the fact that the principal functional requirements of education are first, to socialize the young into prevailing norms and attitudes so as to preserve social stability, and secondly, to stratify individuals in accordance with the complex network of roles that sustains the existing social order. The critical idea here is that school does not operate in isolation and its function in society is imperative to the development of the society. While D‟Aeth (1975, p. 32) observed that the central objective of education was to raise the level of skills, especially technical and management skills, needed to support economic growth and to provide an adequate supply of the whole range of professional expertise needed to run a modern nation.
Basic to this perspective is the conviction that the regular patterns displayed in human action are caused by social laws operating to ensure the order and cohesion necessary for the preservation of society. Society is therefore regarded as an interdependent entity maintained through impersonal law-like processes that operate without the intervention of human purpose. Particular institutions, such as education, are presumed to be „functional‟ in the sense that they exist in order to serve some of the functions that must be fulfilled for society to survive (Carr & Kemmis, 1986, pp. 58–59). Carr and Kemmis further argued that the functionalist sociology of education
provides knowledge of how the social mechanism already operating in educational institutions could be modified so that the equilibrium of society could be maintained.
The researcher takes as his point of departure the functionalist approach to education because it views the school as a unified purposeful organization or simply as a system that is made up of component parts. The entire staff in the school system is viewed as a whole and they are supposed to be experts in their field. Thus, a clear picture of this „classic‟view of teacher effectiveness is the first step toward understanding the contemporary meaning of professionalism for today‟s education and practical issues. Therefore, I conclude that functionalism as a school of thought focuses on what makes society function determines its use and purpose. However, given that different situations may influence instructional processes of students and the society at large, Eraut (1994, p. 1) argued that most accounts of the ideology of professionalism follow the functionalist models developed by Goode (1969), Merton (1960) and Parsons (1968), which accord primacy of place to the professional knowledge base. The problem, to which the concept of a profession is said to provide an answer, is that of the social control of expertise. Experts are needed to provide services which the recipients are not adequately knowledgeable to evaluate.
Also, the purpose of this choice is not to test or refute functionalist theory, but to use it to select variables of interest and to organize my research. An examination of the concepts used in this work fits into this framework because a picture of the typical outlook of professionalism is the first step towards accepting the contemporary meaning of professionalism for today‟s teaching and practice issues. In essence, the goal is to test how teacher effectiveness in terms of methodological competencies
motivational competencies and instructional process competencies affect their teaching and learning. The researcher‟s preference of the functionalist theory does not mean that functionalist theory is not without criticism from other schools of thought. The functionalists were criticized on their view of the causes of educational failure which apportioned blame on the individuals not the society, the poor, or the rich. Functionalists were positive regarding the common social goals of education and failed to recognize that it was hard to achieve common social goals. They also criticized the functionalist‟s failure to see that social stability might be a result of a
„manipulated‟ and „illusive‟ consensus. They failed to see education as necessary for motivating individuals for their own personal development rather than the sake of national economic need.
2.3 Methodological Competencies of Teacher and their Role in Improving Instructional Process
Olube (2004) defined methodological competencies as the procedures of doing something and having enough skill and knowledge to carry out a function. Thungu et al ( 2008) did a study on the method used to increase pupils performance. They found that teachers used a combination of storytelling, play activities, dramatization, Roles play, Demonstration, Discovery, Discussion, singing lecture method, education visit method, question and answer method and debate method. Olube (2006) suggested that, it is through these methods of teaching that teacher can acquire the competencies needed to carry out instruction process effectively and efficiently
Since 2005, the curriculum in use at all level of education in Tanzania is based on competent based curriculum (URT: 2010). Competent based curriculums encourage
the use of multiple teaching and learning methods which are participatory. Cos Con (1990) classified method of teaching in to two categories, these are participatory and non participatory methods. Non participatory methods are those methods which pupils are not fullest engage in teaching and learning activities, while participatory methods are those methods where by pupils are fullest engaged in teaching and learning activities. Silver (1996) suggested that, participatory methods create learning where by pupils are not passive member of teaching and learning process.
The study done bySumra (2005:8) on PEDP implementation, they revealed that 35% of the teacher of primary schools use lecture methods in teaching. Sumra further found that teachers were not conversant with concept of competent base curriculum which together with other things focused on learner centered approach. Sumrakielimu opined that the methodology that the majority of teachers use were against the requirement of competent base curriculum which emphasis on multiple teaching and learning methods. They suggested that there is a need, as a matter of urgency, to devise a mechanism through which teachers could be given proper orientation on the concept, philosophy and requirements of a competent based curriculum, and to give the teacher continuous professional development opportunity which should be provided on regular basis.
Kayombo (2014) did a study on factors affecting the use of participatory techniques in primary school in Chunya. He found that over 83% of teachers, used non- participatory methods. He further found the factors which influenced teacher to use these methods include; inadequate time, shortage of materials, students poor response to question asked by the teacher, and lack of competency among the
teachers. Kayombo suggested that government should improve school learning environment by employing enough teachers, buying enough teaching and learning materials, furniture and building enough classes, provide teachers with frequent training to boost their knowledge in teaching professional and pupils should try their best participate fully in the learning process both at school and group discussions
Kayombo‟s study supported by Kafumu (2010), who conducted a research on the challenges of participatory techniques in Tanzania. Kafumu found that up those challenges include in sufficient number of teachers, lack of competence among the teachers and in adequate and insufficient teaching and learning resources such as text book. Kafumu suggested retrain teachers and school inspectors to understand better the concept and principals of participatory techniques and be able to implement the system, to review the assessment criteria and procedures of the National Examination to ensure that the final written examination carry less weight and practical and participatory assessment to carry more weight, oral and practical examination in particular must take large share of the marking scheme.
Haji (2014) quoted Mosha (1996) in his study on Influence of teacher attributes on students‟ academic performance in secondary education. He found most teachers are lacking innovative pedagogical skills, what they do in teaching and learning process is to inform, explain, asking question and writing on the blackboard while the typical pupils pattern was listening, taking notes and answering question both chorus and individual. This observation have been supported by MOEVT ( 1998) which pointed out number of profession weakness and gaps among teachers at all level in the education system that associated with in adequate training, lack of teaching skill
among teachers and college tutor, inadequate teaching strategies among primary school teachers and in ability to prepare as well as make use of instruction.
Caferrela (2002) did a study on teaching approaches, He found three levels of learner involvement that are; low participant involvement, medium participant involvement and high participant involvement. Whereby in Low participant involvement methods are lecture, panel discussion, Demonstration, computer based drill, computer based tutorial, and tutorial, medium participant involvement include group discussion, behavior modeling, observation and reflective practice, while high participant involvement include Role play, Debate, case study, storytelling, Problem based learning, project learning, collaborative leaning and inquiry leaning. He suggested that a good instructional method is the one which is interactive to both teachers and learners during learning processes
Thungu et-al (2008:86) did a study on teaching process. He found the factors to be considered in the choice of the methods; these are subject content, the age and developmental level of the leaner‟s, what the leaner‟s already know and their entry behavior, learning activities involved, the objectives of the lesson, space and material resources available, the physical setting and class management and control routines and the teachers own competence in the use of a particular methods. He suggested that when a teacher is choosing the method to use, he or she should consider the learners background, knowledge, and environment and learning goals.
Haji (2014) conducted a study on influence of teacher attributes on students‟ academic performance in secondary education. Haji found that teachers attribute
highly influence of student performance. The identified attribute are professional qualifications, pedagogical skills and behaviors of the teachers. A researcher suggested that teachers need to be trained to improve their professional qualifications and pedagogical skills, the government should provide adequate fringe benefit such as hardship allowance and teaching allowance for the teacher. Parents to take active role in educational activities. Based on the above explanation the researcher intends to examine types of methodological competencies teachers used in order to come up with findings for betterment of effectiveness of primary school education.
2.4 Teachers Instructional Process Competencies and Its Effect on Teaching and Learning
Instructional process refers to instructional activities that provide the means through which pupils will achieve the stated objectives of a course or leaning programme (http://ww.(pstcc.edu---tional-process.htm). www.pstcc.edal-tional-
Keesee (2011) did a research on teaching and learning resources, found five instructional strategies namely the direct instruction strategies, indirect instructional, interactive instructional, experiential instructional and independent instruction.
He noted that direct instruction is highly teacher directed and is among the most common used. It includes teaching methods such as lecture, didactic questioning, practice and drill and demonstration. It is effective for providing information. Indirect instruction it uses inquiry, inclusion, problems solving and discovering, problem solving, guided inquiry concept attainment and concept formation. Interactive instruction relies heavily on discussion and sharing among participants it includes methods like class discussion, small group discussion, project, student pair or trial working.
Experience instruction is leaner centered and activity oriented, student are usually more motivated when they actively participant and teach one another by describing what they are doing. While independent instruction is methods which are purposeful provide to foster the development of individual student initiative, self reliance and self improvement
Keesee also found that in a classroom environment, there are many variables that influence and contribute to learning. He suggested that creating and implementing a learning environment is imperative, that the teachers not only create a setting but promotes learning but also take the time to understand each child.
Under these objectives the research intends to conduct this study in order to examine teacher‟s instructional process competences and its effects on teaching and learning.
2.5 Teacher’s Motivational Competencies in Improving Student’s, Performance
Thungu et al (2008:195) stated that motivation refers to the internal condition or state that saves to activate or energize behavior and to give it direction. They identified two type of motivation, those are: primary motivation which referred to as physiological needs because there are accompanied by some imbalance in the body of animal, this are un learned and aimed at satisfying the basic survival needs of animal. They include hunger, thirst, sex, rest and warmth. Secondary motivation are learnt or acquired. There not directly necessary for survival and are not usually accompanied by underlying physiological change. They stated that factors that influence motivation include:- The philological needs of the individual, emotions which can act
as drives and can reinforce the motives in progress hence increase the desire, habit- are those instigate and regulate action in dynamic sense act motivator, and the individual‟s maturation readiness to learn- learning is most effective when the individual is ready to learn, incentives which include privileges and praise from the teacher, mental assets which include values and attitude of the learner, and environmental factors which is being created by the teacher- this include interesting visual aids such as posters, booklets or teaching material.
Mkumbo (2011), conducted a research to answer the question: are our teachers qualified and motivated to teach? the study raveled five factors which are responsible for poor performance of pupils namely: poor working environment which hindering them from performing the duties effectively and efficiently, poor salaries, lack of teaching and learning materials, poor school leadership and administration, lack of housing facilities, many bureaucratic procedures that are involved in the promotion process and other incentives. Caprara et- al ( 2006) stated that when teachers are motivated and love the teaching profession pupils are motivated to learn and they learn the content taught by the teacher more effectively.
Kirondo (2014) did a research on strategies employed by the teacher to motivate students in kinondoni Municipality. Kirondo found that several factors that affected motivation including: mastery of subject matter; large number of students constrained the classroom discussion and lack of constructive feedback due to the large number
of student. Kirondo suggested that if goals of teaching in schools are to be accomplished teachers need to motivate pupils, motivation make pupils active in leaning, eliminate fear of participating in learning process, pupils become active and it maximize teacher pupils relationship,
Haji (2014) did a research on influence of teacher attributes on pupil‟s academic performance in secondary education and noted that professional qualification, pedagogical skills and behavior of teachers play significant role in pupil‟s performance. This observation show that if teachers have enough qualification and good pedagogical skills and good behavior motivate also pupils to participate effectively and efficiently in teaching and learning process.
Sabutoke (2014) cited Akitoye (2000), in her study on assessment of teacher motivational on students‟ academic performance in science subject noted that money remains the most significant motivational strategy. He asserted that as far back as 1911, Fredrick Taylor and his scientific management associate described money as the most important factor in motivating the industrial workers to achieve greater productivity. Taylor advocated the establishment of incentive system, wages system as a means of stimulating workers to work in a high performance commitment and eventually satisfaction. The study further commented that there is relationship between teacher motivational and pupil‟s academic performance and teachers work effectively if they are well motivation.
Aacha (2010) carried a study on motivation and the performance of primary school teachers‟ in Uganda: A case study of Kimanya-Kyabakuza division, Masaka district aimed to investigate the effect of motivation on performance of primary school teachers in Kimanya-Kyabakuza division, Masaka district. Aacha used both qualitative and quantitative approach and descriptive survey research design. Data was collected by used structure questionnaires instrument to teachers, key informant interview guides for head teachers and MEO, focus group discussion for SMC and documentary review from sample of 135 respondents includes 113 primary school teachers, 12 head teachers, 9 School Management Committee members (SMC) and 1 the Masaka Municipal Education officer (MEO). Aacha revealed that, the performance of teachers was good despite the fact that their motivation was inadequate; also majority of the teachers performed their activities with high morale as evidence from reporting early at school, regular testing and examination of pupils and high turn up of teachers in staff meetings and schools. In order to improve teacher motivation and performance at work in Masaka district Aacha suggested that, Uganda government should increase primary teacher‟s salary that match with cost of living, Provision of accommodation to teachers, strengthening of supervision as well as instituting awards for good performance among others. While Aacha‟s study relate with this study, it differs in terms of design. The current study used correlation and comparative design and the focus is on primary school teachers in both public and private schools. Furthermore, this study used questionnaire, interview and focus group discussion as instruments for collecting information.
Adeyemi (2010) did a study on Principals‟ Leadership Styles and Teachers Job Performance in Senior Secondary Schools in Ondo state Nigeria to identify level of
job performance among teachers in Senior Secondary Schools in Ondo state. He used descriptive research design and data was collected through two instruments namely: Principals‟ Leadership Style Questionnaire (PLSQ) and Teachers‟ Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ) for a total sample of 2040 principals and teachers, whereby
240 principals and 1800 teachers of senior secondary schools in Ondo state.
Adeyemi found that not only teachers‟ job performance was moderate, but also teachers‟ job performance was found to be better in schools having principals using autocratic leadership style than in schools having principals using democratic or laissez-faire leadership style. In this he suggested that, school principals should imbibe a mixture of autocratic and democratic styles of leadership in their school administration in order to enhance better job performance among teachers, and use of laissez-faire leadership style should be discouraged among school principals as it could not bring a better job performance among teachers. The current study will differ from Adeyemi study because, the current study focused on determining the differences in job performance in public and private teachers in primary schools in Kilosa district, correlation and comparative design were used, and data collected by questionnaire, interview and focus group discussion also respondents were primary teachers in both public and private schools in primary school.
Sumra et. al (2005:16) did a study to review three years of PEDP implementation, a key finding from government review to detect teacher involvement in curriculum development and examination setting. They were in a view that when teacher are adequately involved in the development of the curriculum, they are motivated and tend to implement curriculum effectives and efficient, but under this, teachers reported that, they seldom involves in the curriculum development process,
complained that the curriculum they implement was prepared in top down approach and in many cases it is not relevant to their context and they don‟t feel part of it.
Based on these observations from deferent scholars the research intends to determine how teacher‟s motivational competences help in improving pupil‟s performance under the suggestion and comments given by these scholars in order to ensure teachers effectiveness to pupils performance.