THE EFFECT OF POOR MOTIVATION OF TEACHERS ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF STUDENTS

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Relevant literatures were reviewed in this section. The motivational theories of Abraham Maslow, Fredrick Herzberg, McGregor and Victor Vroom are discussed under the theoretical framework. Previous studies were reviewed under empirical literature. The summary of the literature was presented and hence the gaps.

2.1 Concept and Conceptual Framework

A teacher is one who builds up, instructs, trains and guides them for healthy growth and stable adult life. Teacher is also someone who instructs others or provides activities, materials and guidance that facilitate learning in either formal or informal situations. His job goes beyond teaching into moulding young lives, guiding youths, motivating students and general character – training (Majasan, 1995, Ofojebe and Ezugoh, 2010).

Motivation can be defined as a complex socially learned pattern of behaviour involving situations, needs, desires, mechanisms and results. It embraces all factors in an employee’s development to accomplish personal well as organizational goals. According to Ile, (1999). motivation is the mainspring of action in people. The leader who wishes to incite his followers to reach an objective must hold out the promise of reward once the objective is attained. Motives help people to fulfil their wants, drives, and needs). The term motive therefore implies action to satisfy a need. The term need, want, drive, and motive are often used interchangeably by psychologists. Motivation therefore can be defined as a willingness to spend energy to achieve a goal or a reward.

According to Peretomode, (1991), motivation is the process of influencing or stimulating a person to take action that will accomplish desired goals. However, teachers’ motivation is a way of empowering teachers in the occupation and involves the perceptions, variables, methods, strategies and activities used by the management for the purpose of providing a climate that is conducive to the satisfaction of the various needs of the employees, so that they may become satisfied, dedicated and effective in performing their task. In education, teachers should be motivated in order to boost their productivity, effectiveness, efficiency and dedication in performing their task, which will enhance quality assurance, quality education and quality instructional delivery in the educational system.

What is Motivation?

In the development of human resources, motivation plays a vital role in making human beings do the right thing at the right time without side attraction as a result of satisfaction. This is emphasized in the definition of Dobbins Bound and Fowler, (1995:439). who defined motivation as the inner of mind that is responsible for energizing, directing or sustaining good oriented behaviour.

Motivation is concerned with the cause of behaviour; why people act, speak or think in a particular way. School heads need to know how to motivate. In a school the school head needs to “get results through people “or” get the best out of people”.

This will be done best if the school head helps staff experience job satisfaction. This is known as “intrinsic motivation” which comes from within, and not “extrinsic motivation” which is too often based on fear. Results will then be the “best” that the teacher can produce and be more likely to be in line with the overall goals and ethos of the school.

Motivation is a state of tension arising from an unfulfilled need. These needs can be psychological or physiological. Physiological needs are hunger, shelter and drinks while psychological needs are emotional feelings, affection and curiosity.

Motivation is concerned with the cause of behaviour, why people act, speak or think in a particular way. Motivation is an important phenomenon; therefore principles need to know how to motivate. In a school, principal needs to “get results through people or get the best out of people.” In motivation, we have intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is when one does something willingly and the person derives joy in doing it. Extrinsic motivation is when one is compelled or urged to do something.

Teacher Quality

There are several dimensions to teacher quality. Some view it from the angle of the qualification of the teacher, to others, it is the experience while to others, and it is the output of the teacher. No matter what the methodology, nearly all of the recent studies of teacher productivity include some measure of teacher experience, which serves as a proxy for on-the-job training. Results for elementary math are about evenly split between positive and insignificant effects of teacher experience on student achievement. In contrast, all but one of the eight recent studies that separately analyse elementary reading find that student achievement is positively correlated with teacher experience. At the middle school level the findings are essentially reversed.

Studies that include middle school consistently find positive effects of teacher experience on math achievement whereas the findings for the effects of experience on middle school reading achievement are evenly split between positive and insignificant correlations. The three studies of high school teachers yield conflicting results. Aaronson, et al. (2007). and Betts, et al. (2003). Find no significant correlation between teacher experience and student achievement while Clotfelter, et al. (2007). find strong positive effects. One difference in these studies is that Clotfelter, et al. utilizes course-specific end-of-course exams while the other studies rely on more general achievement exams.

As discussed by Rockoff, (2004). and Kane, et al. (2006), the estimated effects of experience may be biased if sample attrition is not taken into account. For example, less effective teachers might be more likely to leave the profession and this may give the appearance that experience raises teacher value-added when, in reality, less effective teachers are simply exiting the sample. Alternatively, selection could work in the opposite direction; more able teachers with higher opportunity costs may be more likely to leave the profession, leading to a spurious negative correlation between teacher experience and student achievement. One method of addressing the attrition issue is to include a teacher-specific effect, to control for unmeasured teacher ability, along with the experience measures. The teacher-specific effect should purge the influence of teacher time-invariant ability on experience, yielding unbiased estimates of the marginal product of experience. While the recent gain score studies all include a teacher specific effect, only two of the eight panel data studies, Hanushek, et al. (2005). and Rockoff, (2004), employ teacher fixed effects in addition to student fixed effects.

Both of these studies analysed only a single school district. In our work we are able to include to include both student and teacher fixed effects using data for the entire state of Florida. In addition to experience, the other commonly measured aspect of teacher training is the attainment of graduate degrees. Nearly all of the recent panel-data and random-assignment studies include a measure of post-baccalaureate degree attainment, typically whether a teacher holds a master’s degree. Except for positive correlations between possession of a master’s degree and elementary math achievement found by Betts et al. (2003), Dee (2004) and Nye, et al. (2004), recent research indicates either insignificant or in some cases even negative associations between possession of graduate degrees by a teacher and their students’ achievement in either math or reading.

In contrast to experience and possession of advanced degrees, the pre-service undergraduate training of teachers has received much less attention in the recent literature. Two studies, Aaronson, et al. (2007). and Betts et al. (2003).consider the effect of college major on later teacher productivity, but fail to find a robust relationship between undergraduate major and the impact of teachers on student achievement. Three studies, Kane et al. (2006), Clotfelter et al. (2006, 2007a). consider general measures of the quality of the undergraduate institution attended and find little or no relationship to teacher productivity in elementary or middle school. A fourth study, Clotfelter, et al. (2007b) does find a positive and significant relationship between the prestige of the undergraduate institution and productivity of high school teachers. Kane et al. (2006). also analyse the relationship between undergraduate grade point average (GPA) and teacher productivity in elementary and middle school. As with the other measures of undergraduate education, they find no significant relationship between GPA and subsequent teacher performance.

There are at least two shortcomings of recent estimates of the impact of undergraduate education on teacher productivity. First, recent work has relied on relatively gross measures, like college major, which may obscure significant variation in college coursework. Second, none of the recent studies that include measures of undergraduate training control for the pre-college ability of future teachers. Thus, for example, a positive observed correlation between undergraduate institutional prestige and future teacher productivity could mean that institutional quality enhances the productivity of future teachers or simply that more able students are accepted into elite institutions and individual ability is determinative of productivity as a teacher.

In the Nigerian school system, teacher quality could be examined in various ways. It could be examined in terms of teacher’s qualification and teachers’ competence (Akinwumiju, 1995). It could also be examined in terms of teacher’s status, teachers’ teaching experience and teacher’s dedication to duty (Adeyemi, 2007). It could as well be examined in terms of teacher’s integrity and teacher’s job performance (Wilson & Pearson, 1993; Ayodele, 2000).

In terms of competence, researchers have argued that teacher competence is a function of teacher qualifications (Aghenta, 2000). How competent a teacher could be in teaching seems to depend largely on teacher’s qualification. This contention supported Mullen’s, (1993). argument that the level of a teacher’s subject matter competence is a prime predictor of pupils’ learning. He argued that it is not only the qualifications obtained by a teacher that could contribute to a teacher’s quality but actual achievement in terms of subject matter competence.

Researchers have also attributed the low achievement of pupils in schools to teachers’ inadequate knowledge of the subject matter. Oladejo, (1991). for instance, conducted a survey on teacher factor in the effective teaching and learning of English as Second Language (ESL) in Kaduna State, Nigeria and found that out of the 95 teachers in his sample, 44 (46.3%) were degree holders in English Language having qualifications relevant to what they taught while 53.7% were non-degree holders or teachers specialized in other subjects teaching English Language in schools. He then argued that the problem of getting competent teachers has been a major problem to students’ learning outcomes. He however observed that children of “all aptitude levels achieved more when taught by teachers who exhibited competency in classroom management.”

The length of teaching experience of a teacher has been an important factor determining how effectively the teaching-learning process in a school has been achieved. The importance of experienced teachers in schools has been highlighted by many researchers (Akinleye, 2001; Commeyras, 2003). Researchers have also given different opinions about teaching experience and pupils’ learning outcomes in schools (Waiching, 1994; Dunkin, 1997). Their arguments were based on the fact that experience improves teaching skills while pupils’ learn better at the hands of teachers who have taught them continuously over a period of years.

Teachers’ integrity seems to be another variable of teacher quality in the school system. Academic integrity has been defined as the dignity which an individual exhibits in the pursuit of academic knowledge (Beehr, 1996; McCabe, 2001). Others have described it as the prestige of oneself in his or her educational endeavours (Glasner, 2002; Obi, 2004). As such, how a teacher conducts himself or herself effectively in a school system is a function of his or her integrity (Chandon, 2000; Uyo, 2004).

In the same vein, teacher’s job performance is another variable that could determine teacher quality in a school system. It refers to the actions of the teacher in performing certain jobs or duties in the school. It is the totality of the input of the teacher towards the attainment of educational objectives (Ajayi, 2005; Olorunsola, 2010). It is the act of accomplishing a given task in a school organization. It could be measured through the level of teachers’ competency in subject matter, lesson note preparation, content covered, level of coverage of scheme of work, lesson presentation, monitoring of pupils work, effective supervision, effective leadership and the disciplinary ability of the teacher (Adeyemi, 2008).

Notwithstanding the aforementioned variables of teachers’ quality, how teachers’ have been performing their job effectively in relation to the internal efficiency of the school system has been a matter of concern to stakeholders in education (Jones, 1997; Ige, 2001; Olubor, 2004). The term efficiency refers to the relationship between the inputs and the outputs of a system (Nwandiani, 1998). The inputs into the system include the pupils, teachers, furniture, equipment and facilities as well as finance and time while the output comprises the pupils’ who graduate at the end of the system (Adeyemi, 1998).

2.3 Theoretical Framework

The theories that are related to the work were considered to be vital to this study and they include: Incentive Theories, Alderfer's ERG Theory, Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs theory, Hertzberg’s two factory theory, McGregor’s X and Y theory and Vroom Expectancy theory

2.3.1 Incentive Theories: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation can be divided into two different theories known as Intrinsic (internal) motivation and Extrinsic (external) motivation.

Intrinsic Motivation: The study of intrinsic motivation started around early 1970s. According to Ryan and Deci, (2000), intrinsic motivation is the self-desire to seek out new things and new challenges, to analyse one's capacity, to observe and to gain knowledge. It is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for reward. The phenomenon of intrinsic motivation was first acknowledged within experimental studies of animal behaviour. In these studies, it was evident that the organisms would engage in playful and curiosity driven behaviours in the absence of reward. Intrinsic motivation is a natural motivational tendency and is a critical element in cognitive, social, and physical development. Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities. Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they: attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy or locus of control believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as self-efficacy beliefs are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades. An example of intrinsic motivation is when an employee becomes an IT professional because he or she wants to learn about how computer users interact with computer networks. The employee has the intrinsic motivation to gain more knowledge

Advantages: Intrinsic motivation can be long-lasting and self-sustaining. Efforts to build this kind of motivation are also typically efforts at promoting student learning. Such efforts often focus on the subject rather than rewards or punishments.

Disadvantages: On the other hand, efforts at fostering intrinsic motivation can be slow to affect behaviour and can require special and lengthy preparation. Students are individuals, so a variety of approaches may be needed to motivate different students. It is often helpful to know what interests one’s students in order to connect these interests with the subject matter. This requires getting to know one’s students. Also, it helps if the instructor is interested in the subject to begin with.

Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain a desired outcome and it is the opposite of intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation comes from influences outside of the individual. In extrinsic motivation, the harder question to answer is where do people get the motivation to carry out and continue to push with persistence. Usually extrinsic motivation is used to attain outcomes that a person wouldn't get from intrinsic motivation. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money or grades) for showing the desired behaviour, and the threat of punishment following misbehaviour. Competition is an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives.

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to over justification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect, children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition. However, another study showed that third graders who were rewarded with a book showed more reading behaviour in the future, implying that some rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation. While the provision of extrinsic rewards might reduce the desirability of an activity, the use of extrinsic constraints, such as the threat of punishment, against performing an activity has actually been found to increase one's intrinsic interest in that activity. In one study, when children were given mild threats against playing with an attractive toy, it was found that the threat actually served to increase the child's interest in the toy, which was previously undesirable to the child in the absence of threat.

Alderfer's ERG Theory: Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory. This theory posits that there are three groups of core need — existence, relatedness, and growth, hence the label: ERG theory. The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second group of needs are those of relatedness- the desire we have for maintaining important personal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the external component of Maslow's esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs as an intrinsic desire for personal development. Maslow's categories are broken down into many different parts and there are a lot of needs. The ERG category is broader and covers more than just certain areas. As a person grows, the existence, relatedness, and growth for all desires continue to grow. All these needs should be fulfilled to greater wholeness as a human being. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem category and the characteristics included under self-actualization.

Incentive Theory: Incentive theory is exactly what it sounds like it is, it is an incentive or motive to do something. The most common incentive would be a reward. Rewards can be tangible or intangible, and is presented generally after the occurrence of the action or behaviour that one is trying to correct or cause to happen again. This is done by associating positive meaning to the behaviour and or action. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect is greater, and decreases as delay lengthens. According to Marr (2009) repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become a habit. Motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people. (Refer to Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation for more information). "Reinforcer’s and reinforcement principles of behaviour differ from the hypothetical construct of reward." A reinforce is anything that follows an action, with the intentions that the action will now occur more frequently Rani, and Kumar-Lenka, (2012). Positive reinforcement is demonstrated by an increase in the future frequency or magnitude; this is due to the fact that in the past such action was followed by a reinforcing stimulus. Positive reinforcement involves a stimulus change consisting of the presentation or magnification of a positive stimulus following a response. Negative reinforcement involves stimulus change consisting of the removal of a stimulus following a response. From this perspective, the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces is irrelevant.

Another principle of reinforcement is intermittent reinforcement. This is the on-and-off use of reinforcement. It is very effective in locking in behaviours that precede it by preventing the reward from losing its value. Intermittent reinforcement can also make it more difficult to modify behaviour later. "Dr. Skinner actually mapped out schedules of reinforcement in thousands of studies showing how the strength of reinforcement changed as a function of how often the reinforce occurred. Applying proper motivational techniques can be much harder than it seems, especially because it’s different for every person. Take note that when creating a reward system, it can be easy to reward A, while hoping for B, and in the process, reap harmful effects that can jeopardize your goals.

Incentive theory in psychology treats motivation and behaviour of the individual as they are influenced by beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable. Incentive theory is promoted by behavioural psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner. Incentive theory is especially supported by Skinner in his philosophy of Radical behaviourism, meaning that a person's actions always has social ramifications: and if actions are positively received people are more likely to act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in this manner.

Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as drive theory, in the direction of the motivation. In incentive theory, stimuli "attract", a person towards them, and push them towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviourism, incentive theory involves positive reinforcement: the reinforcing stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier. As opposed to in drive theory, which involves negative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the punishment—the lack of homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has come to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of hunger, or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst.

Classification of Needs

We can begin with Maslow’s conceptualization of universal needs arranged in a hierarchy. These needs, starting with the most basic, are physiological, safety, social, ego, and self-actualizing. We can investigate the extent to which these needs are satisfied within the context of the organization as conceived by Herzberg.

2.3.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

The psychologist A. H. Maslow has developed a widely acclaimed theory of human motivation in which he postulates that there is a definite rank-order priority of human needs. Until the more basic wants are fulfilled, a person will not strive to meet his higher needs.

Fig 2.1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow classifies needs into five categories.

1. Physiological

2 Safety, stability and security

3 Belongingness and love

4. Self-esteem and the esteem of others

5. Self-actualization, self-realization and self-accomplishment

The implications of the hierarchical nature of human motivation are important for an understanding of why people behave as they do. If a person has barely enough food, water, and shelter to survive, his entire energies are devoted to eking out an existence. He is not interested in status, prestige, or making his ideas known to others. He cannot afford the luxury of engaging in ego-enhancing activities. Once the basic physiological and safety wants are met, and then people strive for companionship, belongingness, love, affection and the esteem of others. When he has a superabundance of food, clothing, and shelter, the fulfilment of these needs no longer motives our hypothetical man. He turns to his higher needs. The higher needs are social and psychological in nature.

They are less concrete and more nebulous than the survival needs. Particularly, when we concern ourselves with the egoistic drives, we find that full satisfaction seldom occurs. People can always take more recognition, more praise, more status, and more adulation.

2.3.3 Hertzberg’s Two Factors Theory of Motivation

Significant development in motivation was the distinction of motivational and maintenance factors in the job situation. The original research was based upon interviews of 200 engineers and accountants in the Pittsburgh area by Frederick Herzberg and, associates. Their approach was to ask the engineers and accountants to think of a time. When they felt especially good about their jobs and a time when they felt particularly bad about their jobs and then to describe the conditions that led to those feelings. Herzberg found that employees named different types of conditions for good and had feelings. That is, if a feeling of achievement led to a good feeling, the lack of achievement was rarely given as cause for bad job feelings. Instead, some other factor such as company policy was given as a cause of bad feelings.

Herzberg concluded that some job conditions operate primarily to dissatisfy employees when the conditions are absent, but their presence does not motivate employees in a strong way. Many of these factors traditionally are perceived by management as motivators, but the factors are really more potent as dissatisfies. (Observe in this instance how the perceptions of management are not the same as the perceptions of employees). These potent dissatisfies are called hygiene factors, or maintenance factors, in the job, because they are necessary to maintain a reasonable level of satisfaction in employees.

Another set of job conditions operates primarily to build strong motivation and high, job satisfaction, but their absence rarely proves strongly dissatisfying. These conditions are known as motivational factors, motivators, or satisfiers. For many years manager had been wondering why their fancy personnel policies and fringe benefits were not increasing employee motivation on the job. The distinction of motivational and maintenance factors helped answer their question, because fringe benefits and personnel policies were shown to be primarily maintenance factors.

The original Herzberg study included six motivational factors: achievement, recognition, and advancement, work itself, possibility of growth and responsibility. There were ten maintenance factors: company policy and administration, technical supervision, interpersonal relations with supervisors, interpersonal relations with peers, interpersonal relations with subordinates, salary, job security, personal life, working conditions, and status.

Motivational factors such as achievement and responsibility mostly are related directly to the job itself, the employee’s performance on it, and the recognition and growth that is secured from it. Motivators are mostly job centred, they relate to job content.

Maintenance factors mostly are related to the environment external to the job. This environment includes company policy and working conditions as well interpersonal relations with others. Maintenance factors are mostly environment centred; they relate to job context. This difference between job content and job context is a significant one. It shows that employees primarily are motivated strongly by. What they do for themselves. When they handle responsibility or gain recognition through their own behaviour, they are strongly motivated. If these conclusions are correct, they management’s proper role become some of providing a proper environment for employee accomplishment. The employee performs the work, and management provides the supportive environment.

2.3.4 Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory V

McGregor was an individual psychologist who became famous for these contrasting theories of individual behaviour which he labelled Theory X and Theory Y. These two theories clearly distinguished the traditional autocratic assumptions about people (Theory X) from more behaviourally based assumptions about people (Theory Y). The Theory X assumptions about human nature is that:

1. “The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if possible.
2. Because of his human characteristics of dislike of work, one must coerce, control, direct, and threaten most people with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organizational objectives.
3. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and wants security above all” (McGregor 196O33).

Theory Y Stipulates That:

1. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest. The average human being does not inherently dislike work. Depending upon controllable conditions, work may be a source of satisfaction (and will be voluntarily performed) or a source of punishment (and will be avoided if possible)
2. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing about effort towards organizational objectives. Man will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which he is committed.
3. Commitment to Objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. The most significant of such rewards e.g. the satisfaction of ego and self-actualization needs, can be direct products of effort directed toward organizational objectives.
4. The average human being learns under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility. Avoidance of responsibility, lack of ambition, and emphasis on security are generally consequences of experience, not inherent human characteristics.
5. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is wide1y, not narrowly, distributed in the population.
6. Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized.

The theory X approach actually precedes the old human relations theory and practice of management. By contrast, theory Y marks the point of departure for the newer behavioural approach to management. Theory X implies an autocratic approach to managing. It assumes that workers dislike work and wish to avoid responsibility. As a result they behave in an immature and dependent fashion and the consequent out-come is alienation from activities or sabotage, or they withdraw and produce no more than a minimum amount of work. The only applicable solution is for management to adopt Theory Y which implies a humanistic and supportive approach to managing people. It assumes that people are not lazy and indolent. They can enjoy work and can exercise self-control and are imaginative and creative. This means that management should develop policies which promote intrinsic job satisfaction and individual development. They should promote job enlargement, general supervision, strong cohesive work groups and decentralization. If management will provide the proper environment to release workers potential, work will become a natural to them as play or rest.

Finally, McGregor stated that the central principle of organization which derives from Theory X is that of direction and control through the exercise of authority and this has been called “the scalar principle”. Furthermore, the central principle which derives from Theory Y is that of “integration” the creation of conditions such that the members of the organization can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts toward the success of the organization.

If a manager is strongly authoritarian, insists on doing things ‘by the book’ and gives order and commands rather than suggestions and counselling, we might say that his assumptions are those of Theory X. The Theory X assumptions about human nature are the sources and origin of conflicts in work organizations.

The manager, who is less aloof, spends more time teaching and training subordinates, emphasizes obtaining results, rather than following procedures, and delegates authority shows the earmarks of embracing Theory Y assumptions. This manager is encouraging integration by creating a situation in which a subordinate can achieve his own goals best by directing his efforts towards the objectives of the organization. Theory Y that implies a humanistic and supportive approach to managing people will help to achieve industrial harmony.

2.3.5 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Formulated by Victor Vroom, the expectancy model of motivation is useful for analyzing and explaining the motivation of individuals in an organization setting. The model does not explain the factors or content of what motivates people to work as do the theories of Maslow and Herzberg. Rather it helps one understand the thought processes (which may be conscious and organized but which also can be subconscious or disorganized) that an individual goes through in deciding whether or not to exert the effort to try to achieve any of various possible goals. It is a useful tool for analysis and research. But, the expectancy model doesn’t offer specific substantive answers for managers who are trying to improve the motivational claim for their work units.

To understand the expectancy model, one must first learn the meaning of three concepts used in expressing the model. These are valence, expectancy, and instrumer1tElity.

Valence: Is the degree or extent to which a person desires a particular outcome. It can be measured by asking an individual to state how important any of various outcomes or goals are to him. Other terms that can be used to represent the concept of valence are preference expected utility or affecting orientation towards a particular outcome.

Expectancy Is the perceived probability that effort or behaviour by the person will yield a particular outcome or result. This probability is subjectively determined by the individual.

Instrumentality Is the degree or extent to which the person believes the attainment of the first -level outcome will yield a second level outcome (which is the ultimate goal of the person). A second level outcome is a human need such as companionship, security, respect of others, or accomplishment.

Vroom’s expectancy model of motivation has been tested empirically by a great many academic scholars and researchers. The results of these investigations have generally been supportive of its theoretical constructs and formulation. Researchers generally determine the valences and expectancies by directly asking employees questions about their goals and perceptions of likelihoods of achieving them.

The practical value of the expectancy model for managers is that it demonstrates that motivation is highly individualized from person to person. The manager must know the special concerns and strengths of his people. If he desires to obtain particular kinds of performance from them, he must inform them of the connections between performance and reward. He must learn of their expectancies and valences and perhaps he can increase the motivational forces of individuals through supportive performance appraisal discussions.

An example of how the expectancy model works

Valence X Expectancy Motivation Action

Outcomes (goals Attainment Satisfaction

OR Instrumentality

Individual’s Valence x Organizational

Satisfaction of

Motivational = Expectancy Action Reward Personal need

Force (first level outcome) (Second Level Outcome)

2.3.6 Teachers Motivation and its Challenges

Such motivational strategies that negatively influence teachers’ motivation, quality assurance and job satisfaction if not properly handled as identified by Okonkwo (1997) in Ofojebe and Ezugoh, (2010) include the following:

Poor condition of service especially with respect to salaries and remunerations.

Confining teachers through the use of school policies, syllabus and administration to repetitive activities, methods and programmes.

Making interpersonal relationships in schools very low particularly among the staff.

Denying teachers opportunities for further education, development and training.

Poor security measures and poor conditions of work.

Denying teachers of their promotions and appropriate authority, responsibility for their day-to-day functions.

Poor administrative structure and organizational climates in the school system.

Non-professionalization of teaching in Nigeria, lack of teacher’s recognition and low status. This and many other factors to a large extent are responsible for the level of operation of teachers in the Nigerian educational system. Once teacher lack majority of these motivational needs, it will result to work dissatisfaction which negatively influence quality assurance in the educational system. There are however many factors that hinder teachers motivation in the Nigerian educational system which affects quality assurance. Among such factors are the two most important factors which include: bad governance and nonchalant attitude towards teachers’ motivation and inadequate funds. Bad governance coupled with their nonchalant attitude in the country has affected a lot of things in Nigeria especially in the area of education. They do not pay attention to teachers’ needs due to misappropriation of funds, corruption, mismanagement and diversion of funds to other things neglecting education or things that are of less importance.

2.3.7 Educational Implications of Motivation:

The motivational theories and strategies have great implications in the educational system which includes the following:

Satisfaction of the motivational factors leads to quality performance and high productivity which enhances quality assurance in the educational system.

The motivational theories are essential for schools’ administration when it comes, to coordinating and controlling activities within the school environment. With this notion, Ejiogu, (1990) opined that “teachers’ motivation provides the essential means for control and coordination of activities within a given organization”. For instance, staff training and development is one of the most important elements in efficient administration which is assumed to make workers realize better what they have to do to acquire skills required for proficient performance in order to enhance quality assurance.

The motivational factors also influence teachers’ job satisfaction either positively or negatively. When applied negatively in the school system causes dissatisfaction which result into withdrawal, neglect of duty and negative outcomes but when applied positively causes satisfaction resulting to increase in commitment, productivity and quality performance. However, there is a strong nexus between teacher’s motivation, job satisfaction and job performance which has educational implications.

There is also a close relationship between stability in the teaching profession and their efficiency of the educational system. If experience on the part of the teacher contributes in general to increased efficiency in the classroom, a large turnover is certain to produce component educational products than when the experience is relatively stable, would certainly produce poorer educational products which have serious implications to education. Teachers’ motivation counts when it comes to their stability and turnover in the teaching profession.

Another important thing is that motivational factors involving the motivators and hygiene factors as well influence teachers’ job retention, their level of participation in decision making and quality contributions in the school and commitment to duty. When they feel dissatisfied with their job rewards, they will become frustrated, regularly absent from duty and may eventually quit (Okonkwo, 1997 in Ofojebe and Ezugoh, 2010).

PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION

Principle of Participation

The staff is involved in decision making and in maters which affect them directly. The more the staffs who become involved, the more they are promoted to help in achieving the objectives. If a school head involves staff in decision making, he/she nevertheless remains accountable for taking the final decisions and for results.

Principle of Communication

If the staff is informed about the objectives and the results achieved, they are inclined to cooperate more and feel that they are part (members) of the staff (group). The opposite is also true: if staff does not know what they are supposed to be achieving, they will show little interest and have little motivation.

Principles of Recognition

If a person (or staff) receives the necessary recognition and work satisfaction, she is inclined to work harder. Earned recognition brings a feeling of satisfaction and should not be levels immediately after giving positive recognition. Recognition should be given to the staff members as a person and not just as a human resource.

The Principle of Delegated Authority

A school head should be prepared to delegate authority to capable people. In this way, a person’s post is enhanced, and this serves as a means of personnel development. Delegated authority also means that more people will be allowed to make decisions themselves in connection with their work within set guidelines.

Motivation of staff

The principles of motivation outlined above indicate that certain factors determine individual work motivation. Motivating factors are classified into four groups; personal needs, work characteristics, the social system and management methods. In other words, for successful motivation, the head-teachers should not only have some knowledge of the staff, but should also bear certain factors in mind which can enhance or weaken the effort of motivation. These are factors inherent in human beings, factors in education (the work), management factors and community factors.

Factors in Education: The need of every person should be taken into account, such as the need for recognition, expectations, the need to achieve, the need to be an authoritarian figure, value systems, self-respect and friendship relationships. If a teacher occupies a temporary post, there is a need for work security. Merit awards and promotion can given the necessary recognition of achievements by teachers. No recognition of achievements has a demotivating effect on teachers and can lead to high staff turnover. A personal and professional attitude should be created. A sense of responsibility should be cultivated as well as pride in the quality to work done.

Factors in Education (work situation): Factors related to the work itself may also serve as a means of motivating, for instance the meaningfulness and interesting nature and type of work, the opportunities for group identity, changes of promotion, the work environment, the opportunities and challenges of the work, i.e. the opportunities for creativity and renewal. Monotony and routine can be demotivating. Routine work leads to frustration and boredom and to a lack of motivation. One solution can be to rotate some routine activities so that boring chores do not always have to be done by the same person.

Management Factors The quantity of management affects behaviour, attitudes and effort. Positive interpersonal relationships are regarded as strengthening motivation. In this respect, communication is importance. Teachers would like to know and should know “what is expected of them and how their tasks form part of a total plan. This should be occupied to competent and just leadership with acceptable tasks and necessary guidelines.

In a school the school head is responsible for planning, guiding and leading the school, tasks are delegated to teachers, and if a participatory management style is used, with teacher’s efforts valued, motivation to work hard is likely to be strong.

Community Factors: Certain community values also serve as motivators. If the community’s values (whether religious, economic, cultural, political or social) differ from those of the teacher, these community factors will have a demotivating effect on the teacher. The personal life of a teacher, such as his relationship with her/his family, will also influence his behaviour. The head-teacher has little control over such motivating factors, but she would have to deal with the situation should it have a negative effect on a teacher’s work. Therefore it would seem that to motivate staff, a school head should have knowledge of the needs of the people, their work circumstances, the requirements of the community, and effective management style.

Education is a social service which has been accepted the world over as a formidable and dynamic instrument of change. The teachers occupy a central position in any educational programme for its implementation. Hiring and keeping committed staff has been problem with secondary schools in Enugu State, in spite of the fact that the teachers are well paid and as when due. For decades, people have asked “what satisfies staff in long term care?” So what is the problem and why does finding and retaining good staff continue to plague the field? We know what staff wants, but we do not seem to know how to provide for their needs. Considering therefore the private position of teachers as the key to the success and failure of the nation’s entire education system, it goes with little or no argument that a nation that toys with creating a successful workforce culture/motivation for teachers for the implementation of her educational programmes misplaces priorities.

Many laudable educational programmes and initiatives have failed mainly because of lack of workforce culture. No educational system can rise above the level of its workforce (staff).

Principles should be able to create successful workforce culture in their schools. Without principle’s input or blessing, any initiative, program, new approach or attempt at “culture change” will fail. Nevertheless, teachers are regarded as the most vital resource in the education industry. Education is the door that opens to modernization and development, and then the teachers hold the key to that door. This is acknowledged in the National Policy on Education (FGN 1981) which states that “no education system can rise above the quality, dedication to duty and overall productivity.

Steps through which Principle’s cam Manage Relationship with Staff

1. Practice emotional control.
2. Provide frequent updates: the updates should imitate by principal, they must involve honest disclosures of what you know, what you don’t, what you can share and what you cannot.
3. Become an exceptional listener.
4. Encourage others to talk.
5. When others speak, clarify for certainty:

Paraphrasing shows respect for team members and staff ideas and keeps miscommunication to a minimum.

1. Eliminate distraction: turning off your cell phone, shutting the door etc.
2. Lead with (realistic) optimism. Would you rather follow someone who is constantly preaching failures and bad luck or someone who is persistent in finding opportunity?
3. Avoid power struggles.
4. Encourage staff often.

Ways through which Staff can be motivated

Leadership is in a position to meet these needs and determine the facility’s level of staffing. It starts with the leader’s desire to create a work culture that meets the needs and desires of staff. Leaders have the power and the authority to initiate programs and support others in their quest to create an exemplary workplace. It starts with the leader or designee’s vision and plan, which are then shared and enhanced by the principal and the teachers in all the departments. It is, in essence, a collective leadership model.

Visioning, visioning is the process of creating a dream organization without restraint of money or time. A well-developed vision includes laying out how things will work in all departments, how it will fell and operate as a whole. The vision must be created and supported by all staff. If only the leader is involved in creating a vision, the vision belongs solely to the leader. It will not unite the entire organization.

Staff retention is enhanced by a reason for being, and vision is the motivator and driver. It is something to work for and towards. If there is no vision, staff simply comes to school, do their own individual things, and go home. There is nothing that binds them, or excites them. There is no direction, no destination, nothing to work toward. Without a vision, staff does not know what is expected, what they should do, or how they should perform. If the leader has no vision or destination in mind, how does staff follow a leader going nowhere?

Once it is created, the vision should be used as the basis for all decision making. When faced with an issue, one must look to see if choices being considered are consistent with the organization’s vision. Decisions should be examined on the potential impact they may have on everyone staff, all departments, and all shifts. It should also be reviewed from the perspectives of the students, families and community. Vision, once established should be a topic of conversion that takes place with all members of the organization at least annually and anytime it appears that the group has lost its way. Heightening ongoing awareness keeps the organization together in heading toward the same position.

Respects, employees have consistently told researchers that a lack of respect severely impacts their organizational satisfaction. It is sad that respect is an issue that even has to be discussed, but it is one that continues to be paramount in long-term care. Respect must be a core value, and that means respect for all people at all times, regardless of who they are or position they hold. Leadership must establish respect as the foundation of how everyone will work together. This includes respect from principal to staff, staff to staff, staff to students and the reverse. Demand it and do not waver. While it is not often necessary, it is important to remind students and families of your school’s respect policy. If they are unable to do so, asking a staff or students to leave may be appropriate given the fact that they are unhappy and may be more satisfied in another place. Cost is not excuse, time is no excuse. Respect does not cost anything except commitment to the concept and maintenance of it as a core value. The reality is that leadership can demand it. respect others or leave.

Successful staff selection, when selecting staff, it is important to first find those who have an interest and willingness to support and work towards the vision of the organization. If this does not exist, over time the individual will not be successful. Every organization is not the right fit for every person. Be clear about your direction and let potential candidates decide whether it is right for them. The introduction of UBE in Nigeria has necessitated the production and utilization of teachers since the success of the programme is dependent on the presence in our education system of highly skilled teaching personnel. Therefore, the quality of teachers has become the primary standard upon which the UBE programme would be established.

In the selection process of teaching staff, the “person” is more important than his or her experience. The culture of long-term care is changing and it is critical to have employees on board if the potential employee does not support the organization’s vision, standards and expectation. Teaching a new employee a new task or process is easy, but teaching them to care is impossible. Production of successful workforce culture in public secondary schools has become necessary for the effective functioning of the UBE programme. When interviewing teachers, it is important to show potential staff the entire school, not just a push office or a beautiful lobby. They should see the entire school compound and understand all levels of care that they might experience in their job, so they are clear about what their job entail and the students who will be entrusted to their care.

Staff orientation, is important because not all the employees are aware of what to do. First, they do not know the students, where supplies are located, the people with whom they are working, or whether they are expected to work together as a team. New employees do not know the processes that have been set up to accomplish tasks. In general, newly hired employees will not know what you expect them to do and how to act if you do not tell and show them. That is why orientation should be mandatory regardless of the new employee’s related experience. A reasonable departmental orientation period is two weeks with a combination of lecture, discussions, monitoring and working with a colleague. In addition to the two weeks, it is helpful to hold an orientation simply to introduce new staff to all departments and their roles. All orientation should consist not only of duties and tasks, but how they are to be accomplished and the way in which staff should work with others.

On-going, Education and support, staff will not learn all they need to know in orientation. Learning and teaching must continue throughout their tenure. There are always new students, new methods, new situations and new information available, all of which present opportunities for learning. Sharing information that is new data about a specific resident serves to enhance care by making all staff more knowledgeable. The more that the staff know the better they perform. It is also an opportunity to learn from one another. On-going, routine sessions offer a wonderful opportunity for everyone to problem-solve about students, processes or procedures. Listening, sharing and learning from one another is rewarding for all who participate. It cements staff relationships, encourages team work and helps everyone to keep in touch with each other’s needs.

Providing such educational programs does not have to be a major expense. Each week, programs are held at least twice on each shift. Each educational program or forum lasts for one half-hour and is repeated to allow all staff the opportunity to attend. Programs are an effective means of educating and staying involved. Each weekly session can be assigned to a member of the management team who is responsible for the program, whether he or she conducts the program or arranges for another to do so. Principals and Vice principals taking turns provide an on-going program for which the burden is not on one person and offers a mechanism for relationship building in all departments. Staff education provides a more stimulating and motivating environment in which to work, and it demonstrates that all staff is valued as students and, in some cases as teachers. It provides an opportunity to stay in touch with the needs of staff, because forum serves as an on-going source for communication. In addition to all of the other benefits of ongoing programs, there is fun: fun for staff to get together, to talk, to laugh and to learn together.

Staff participation and ownership, staffs wants to know what is planned and why something is being done in a particular fashion. They want to have a voice in the decisions and feel part of an organization. They want to have a voice in the decisions and feel part of an organization. They want to know what and why. Often, giving staff the “whys” leads to better decision making in the future. All too often, we talk about empowering teachers but rarely about preparing and educating them to be empowered. An empowered employee can be a tremendous asset, an extension of leadership but an uneducated yet empowered employee can be a nightmare.

Once department staff learns the vision, mission, standard and expectation of the organization, they can act confidently in providing the best care, no longer requiring approval to act in every situation. Being allowed the opportunity to act responsibly brings about random acts of kindness from staff.

Recognizing and celebrating accomplishments, principals of secondary schools should recognize all accomplishments in the workplace, no matter how small, and do so individually at the time the occur. Whether for a skill demonstrated, a good job done, or extra effort or assistance provided to others, everyone needs to know they are valued.

A wonderful mechanism for recognizing staff is to seize every opportunity to nominate employees for local, state or national awards for their positions. Often Nigerian Cadbury Limited and Oil Companies seek nominations for exceptional performance of teachers (in long-term care). Submit qualified employees for these awards. There is nothing more rewarding than to see to colleagues receive such an award.

Parties, spontaneous and planned, as well as celebrations, serve to enhance the mood and atmosphere in the school. Special days can be planned e.g. sporting days, holidays, and sometimes “no reason” days. Research indicates that satisfied staff leads to satisfied students and families, which in turn increase census and improve financial outcome.

Communication is another way through which staff can be motivated. We have upward and downward communication. Once teachers are abreast of the happenings in their various schools, they are bound to make input and ensure that school programs and policies are carried out.

NEGATIVE EFFECT OF MOTIVATED STAFF

Importance of motivation

Harry Levinston sees unmotivated employee as a threat to the organization. When an employee fails to achieve a goal or perceives that he cannot achieve a goal, he feels frustrated and could develop other peculiarities, characteristics of the position in which he finds himself.

FRUSTRATION

When an employee is confronted with a problem in a work situation, his usual reaction would be to adopt a problem solving behaviour which may take the form of variability in thought or action. If the variability in action and thought does not appear to be the solution of the problem, the employees can abandon the problem and settle for less. A student who is poor in mathematics for example may, as a result, abandon the idea of doing science at college and settle for arts.

A problem situation can produce frustration. Frustration comes in, in a problem situation when a substitute is not available and there is no way of escape. The individual is blocked from his goal. After several attempts, tension may be built up inside him.

Generally, pressure, failure and inability to escape from a problem situation give rise to frustration. A frustrated employee is very emotional and unreasonable, and the major systems of frustration are:

1. Aggression
2. Regression
3. Fixation
4. Withdrawal

AGGRESSION

Reaction by physically or verbally attacking others. It is a hostile act associated with emotional anger. It could be an attack on substitute objects (scape goal). Individuals are blamed for the employee’s own failure.

REGRESSION

A breakdown of constructive behaviour to childish acts. In the work environment the individual plays like children, throw things, and engages in childish pranks. Other characteristics of regressive behaviour are: following the leader, lack of responsibility, unreasoned fear, gaining up childishly, childish crying (of women), and pouting (of man).

FIXATION

A compulsion to continue an unproductive activity. The employee keeps washing his tools, frequent the toilet or ties and untie his shoes.

WITHDRAWAL

Attempt to avoid the barrier physically or psychologically.

THE THREE R’s OF MOTIVATION

These are the basics of motivating anyone.

Recognition: Celebrate achievement, large and small success.

Rewards: Provide tangible and intangible rewards.

Reinforcement: Praise people publicly for a job well done. Performance must be the sole basis of recognition, rewards and reinforcement. Remember “what gets rewards gets done”.

HOW MOTIVATE PEOPLE IN AN UNSTABBLE ECONOMY

1. Practice emotional control:

It’s easy to lead when times are good and business is flowing like fine wine. However, when times are stressed, does your impersonal autopilot take over put the business process before the welfare of your people? You may justify calculated decisions by saying, “it is business” but if you need people for business, remember this: People don’t care how much you know until they know how much you care. Client trust and employee loyalty are developed most effectively by those who can be relied upon to connect with others respectfully, timely and competently. How you connect with others when times are hot says a lot about how they’ll respond to you when things go cold. The area where our thoughts and decisions filter through is typically emotional True “thought leaders” are able to executive at a high level because they can demonstrate compassion and understanding, while maintain clinical objectivity. A key action step is to be sure to get feedback on how cool you are when times are heated.

2. Provide Frequent Updates

Many executives create stress and resentment with those they manage because knowledge of company status is not shared. In the absence of feedback, we will create our own and it’s often negative. When people are uniformed, they work from a place that does little for building trust or morale. A great way to keep teams and individuals informed is to designate time on your calendar to share your knowledge. These updates should be initiated by you, the leader. They must involve honest disclosures of what you do know, what you don’t, what you can share and what you cannot.

3. Become an Exceptional Listener:

Getting people to perform in touch times requires understanding. A checklist for this type of listening includes:

Encourage others to talk: Get your staff and clients to talk about themselves by asking open-ended questions, i.e., “How are things going? How you are doing”? What suggestions would you give to improve our current working situation?” Or what concerns or questions do you have that I have not addressed?”

When others speak, clarity for certainty: You can accomplish this by repeating what people have said by rephrasing their message. “If I’m hearing you correctly, you’re telling me that…” or “Let’s see if I completely understand what you’re saying…” Paraphrasing shows respect for team members and client ideas and keeps miscommunication to a minimum.

Eliminate Distractions: Many leaders attempt to multi-task which generally achieves little. It’s important to show focus on those you’re listening to by shutting the door, turning off your cell phone, turning away from your computer or forwarding your office phone. Let the person know that his/her message is valued and respected. Many people believe that they are good listeners, but employee surveys often indicate every few leaders are exceptional. Amid uncertainty, people want information, but they also want ownership, value and yes, even a little bit of therapy. Listen at a deeper level and you’re likely to create more committed and confident performers.

4. Lead with (realistic) optimism:

Jeff is a long-time client and CEO of what once was a thriving bank. Recently, however, his branch has taken repeated, devastating blows from the wing of the financial market. He is a positive guy, yet in a conversation with him a couple weeks back Jeff said, “It is hard to smile when you keep getting kicked in the teeth.” Leading in turbulent times can bring the sobering reality of negativity, anxiety and stress. It can not only turn careers upside down, but can take a toll on home lives as well. And while you want to hear the straight story with no strings attached, think about this: Would you rather follow someone who is constantly preaching failures and bad luck or someone who is persistent in finding opportunity?

Attitude and the behaviours that go with it are contagious. Leaders need to paint pictures that are reflective of the truth, but they must also speak about possibilities. It’s easy to get swept upon in the bad news, but the mettle of our character is how we get off the deck when we’ve been knocked down. In the situation with Jess, he remains optimistic that things at the bank will not only stay afloat, but rebound for the better. In talking to those who work for him on bank employee said, “There is not leader I’d rather follow than Jeff. He’s been supportive of the uncertainty and worries of his employees”. Jeff remains resolute throughout, preaching, “Times are tough, but we must be tougher and realize that our success will be the result of our conviction to seek solutions and be persistent”. Again, it’s heck of a lot easier to lead with optimism when the times are in line with the message. But now is when real leaders are challenged, navigating unfamiliar territory they’ve never been. In continued studies of how relationships impact business results, the need to establish and cultivate business connections is greater than ever. Remember, people think no logic, they act on emotion.

2.4 Review of Empirical Literature

The following literature that are related to the work were reviewed; Babatunde, (2005).Edet 2008, Rasheed et al 2010, Adeyemi 2010, Nbina 2011, and Ahiauzu 2011.

Babatunde, (2005). investigated the long run relationship between education and growth in Nigeria through the application of the Johansen cointegration technique and the vector error correction methodology. The results of the cointegrating technique suggest that there is long run relationship between enrolments in primary and tertiary level as well the average years of schooling with output per worker.

Edet, (2008). studying the influence of non-monetary compensation on teachers attitude to work in Cross-River State used two sets of questionnaire to collect data from 500 teachers and 2000 students. The result showed that there is relationship between non-monetary compensation and attitude to work when taken individually. According to the findings teachers staff development in cross River State had significant influence on their punctuality and quality of work while the total non-monetary compensation in terms of staff development, esteem/recognition and instructional materials had significant relationship with teacher’s integrity at work.

Rasheed et al (2010) their study of motivation issues for teachers in higher education sampled 100 Dean, chairman/HOD in a stratified sampling showed that although compensation and benefits package is a key motivator for the teachers but there are some other non-monetary issues that affect teachers’ motivation in higher education. These include: job design, work environment, career development, recognition and rewards, feedback, training, participation in decision making and empowerment.

Adeyemi (2010) investigated principals’ leadership styles and teachers’ job performance in senior secondary schools in Ondo State, Nigeria. The study population comprised all the 281 secondary schools in the State. Out of this population, a sample of 240 senior secondary schools was taken and selected through the stratified random sampling technique. Out of 7460 teachers (including principals) in the schools, a sample of 2040 teachers was selected through the stratified random sampling technique. The study found that the democratic leadership style was the commonest style of leadership used by principals of senior secondary schools in the State. The finding of this study indicated significant relationship between autocratic leadership style and teachers’ job performance shows that in certain situations, the more authoritarian a leader is, the more effective the subordinates. This implies that many teachers need to be coarse by the principal before they could improve on their job performance.

Nbina, (2011). in a study of teachers motivation strategies showed that majority of the science teachers were not able to expose the students to the experiences they were expected to do, used few approaches in teaching, entered the class unprepared and engaged in other business apart from teaching profession. The study which was carried out in the South-South geo-political zone of Nigeria used two different questionnaires that were structured in liker scale form to collect data. The questionnaire was distributed to 200 teachers. Furthermore, the research also found that science teachers enjoyed no incentive in their profession.Ahiauzu et al (2011) investigated the relationship between motivational factors and teachers performance on the job. A sample of 150 teachers was randomly drawn from 10 secondary schools in Ogba Egbema Ndoni Local Government Area of Rivers State. The study made use of correlational research design.The result revealed a significant relationship between Allowances and teachers promotion. A possible explanation for this result is that motivation helps the teachers to perform better on their jobs. Incentives and rewards from school administrators should have contributed to the teachers’ job performance. Also the result showed that there is a significant relationship between teachers level of training and prompt payment.

Emmanuel and Richards, (2011). examined teacher’s assessment of need satisfiers as motivation for teacher’s effectiveness in Rivers State. The study sampled 240 teachers in Ahaoda East and Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni local government areas in the state. It found that teachers value prompt payment of salaries to enable them provide food and clothing for their families, enhanced rent allowance, provision of medical allowance and enhanced transport allowance in that orders as need satisfiers. Further evidence shows that security needs satisfiers valued mostly by teachers are in the following descending order of magnitude: need for protection against dismissal, need for protection against threat from pupils and parents, need for safety in the classroom environment and need for fair treatment by the school authority.