TEACHER’S MOTIVATION AND PRODUCTIVITY IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:

• Conceptual Framework
• Theoretical Framework

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Concept Of a Teacher

A teacher is a person who helps others to acquire knowledge, competences or values. Teacher is a designation for the office, position, and profession for someone who devotes himself in the field of education through patterned educational interaction, formal and systematic. UU No. 16 Year 2005 on Teachers and Lecturers (Article 1) states that: "The teacher is a professional education with the primary task of educating, teaching, guiding, directing, train, assess and evaluate learners in formal education, in primary education and secondary education". The teacher is a figure of the greatest role in determining the quality of learning in an educational institution called school. Teachers are the most important component in the event education of students. As good as any educational program contained in the curriculum without the role of teachers who cultivate into material that can be understood, it will not mean anything for learners. According to Ngalim (2003:84) Teachers who can understand the difficulties of the students in terms of learning and other difficulties beyond learning problems, especially those that can inhibit learning activities of students. He said a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs in a result of training or experience.In simple terms, the teacher is the one who gives knowledge to the students. Teachers in public view is a person who performs a specific education in places, not necessarily in a formal educational institutions, but also in mosques, surau, at home, and so on (Djamarah, 2001: 31). In the constitution of education and culture are explained, the government shall establish and conduct a national education system, which enhances faith and piety and good values in the life of the nation, which is governed by law. In order to instill faith and devotion and good values in students, the teachers’ roles as the driving motivator students are very influential. Need a great personality, both in terms of psychological or physical. Each teacher’s has a personality each corresponding personal traits they possess. A characteristic feature which is distinguishes a teacher with other teachers. Personality is actually an abstract problem can only be viewed by appearance, behavior, speech, dress, and in the face of every problem. The real personality is abstract, hardly seen or known real, so that can be known is the appearance or the container in all facets and aspects of life. For example in action: speech, how to get along, dresses, and in the face of any issues or problems, whether mild or severe. In short, teachers should be used as a noble figure in leading private student participants, because of the teacher is to create a good students’ which is to create good human beings in accordance with Pancasila. Therefore, teachers must have a code of conduct that must be adhered to in creating a good learner. Teachers as professionals need to have a code of ethics for teachers and making the guidelines governing the employment of teachers during the dedication. According to Atmaka (2004: 17) is an adult educator who is responsible to provide help to the students in the development of both physical and spiritual. In order to achieve the level of maturity capable of standing alone fulfill his duties as a creature

of God, being social and being an independent individual. Mulyasa (2003) added that educators must have academic qualifications and competence as agents of learning,physical and spiritual health, as well as having the ability to realize the goals of the National Education.

In addition, teachers are a good human that makes others human good too. It means, to become a teachers should have a competence, a moral, and accordance with Pancasila. To carry out their duties the principles regarding the desired behavior and expected from all of educational situation is the spirit of Pancasila. Knowledge and skills in communicating and can be accounted for methodical. As a profession, teachers have the characteristics inherent to the teacher, namely:

1. Have the function and social significance for the community, benefited by public.

2. Based on the specific skills acquired through education accountable.

3. Have competence supported by a particular discipline

4. Have a code of ethics that serve as a code of conduct of their members and witnesses clearly and firmly against the etic code violations.

5. As a consequence of service and achievement was given to the community, the members of the profession by individuals or groups the right to obtain financial or material rewards.

The teacher is a figure very important to establish this nation as to which the experts pointed out that the task of teachers is divided into three, namely as a professional task of teachers as a profession covering educate, teach, and train. Educating means to continue and develop the values of life. Teaching means to continue and develop science and technology. Teachers must become second parents for students and civic duties which teachers should be able to mingle with the community to cooperate in any field, especially in the field of education and public affairs. While the function of the teachers’ as a proofreader, information motivator, demonstrate, innovators, facilitators, counselors and classroom manager.

The Traits Of Good Teachers

Good teachers come in a variety of sizes, shapes, colors, genders, and backgrounds. Some are old, some young, some serious, some funny. Despite this broad range of individuals, there are some characteristics that are common to them all. There are countless views on what is involved in being good atteaching. Excellence in teaching is not inherited and teachers may be born but they are also made. These are what some researchers (Cruickshank, Jenkins & Metcalf 2003; Malcolm 2002; Marie, 2000; Beidler, 1997; Young, 1990; Richardson & Arundell, 1989; Suydam, 1983; Brown, and Oke, 1982:1; Bernard, 1965) have found about some common traits of good teachers. Their views come from personal experience and observation rather than educational theory. The common traits for professional characteristics of good teachers are:-

Emotional and Mental Stability

This is shown in the teachers’ sense of affection; security and self-respect. The emotions of the teachers have a bearing on their teaching effectiveness. Teachers that can control their emotions tend to be very effective. A teacher who loses his or her temper is showing wickedness rather than strength to children. It is indeed, fatal for the children because it could lead to their maladjustment and prevent their proper emotional, mental and

1. Are unsatisfied

Good teachers are good learners. They are always eager to learn new things, expand their knowledge base, experiment with better ways to achieve success.

1. They are lifelong learners and they produce lifelong learners.

In other words, the best teachers are always students.

1. Knowledgeable of the subject

Good teachers possess a deep knowledge of the subject matter and are able to manipulate, simplify, and individualize this data more easily because they are a master of it. The ability to teach and explain the lesson in a different way The good teachers are ones that are able to teach to different learning styles. If students don’t understand a subject, they teach it in a different way. In the teaching - learning situation, the teacher’s exposure to principles and methods of teaching will enable him acquaint with variety of methods to choose from. Ability to move from concrete to complex is a technique/skill to be learned.ehavioural development.

5. Wider and Deeper Views

Good teachers try to see things through their students’ eyes as well as their own. By asking wide-ranging questions, good teachers implore their students to probe things further, analyze matters more critically, and look beyond the obvious.

6. Clear Objectives Good teachers

are well organized and have clear ideas about their daily teaching plans, assignments, and grading policies. Their structured lessons and assignments offer many opportunities for students to learn new skills. Competence in teaching is the result of a clear objective and focus.

7. Objectivity and fairness

For great teachers, all students are equal. They work hard to be fair, empathetic, and encouraging. They maintain consistent behaviors and distance themselves from partiality. As humans, students possess an ingrained sense of fair play. Whenever they were dealt in a manner that violates what constitutes fairness in the situation, they react negatively. Any semblance of favoritism, or lack of fairness, can leave scars that last a lifetime.

8. Positive Attitude:

Good teachers try not to be cynical or negative about their students. Instead of complaining about students' lack of abilities and manners and teachers' long work hours, good teachers accept all of these as challenges. They know that humiliating students or intimidating them is not in their students'—or their— best interests. They help each student find areas of interest to explore and master.

9. Know their students

Good teachers have full comprehension of principles governing students’ stages of development and learning process on many levels. They learn all they can about their academic strengths and needs, but even more about their interests, fears, hopes, and worries. They help students learn these things about themselves.

1. Great Expectations:

Without holding a grudge against underperformers, good teachers are

strong, firm, determined and always push their students to strive for their goals and to maintain high expectations. In reality, setting high standards brings out the best in students and creates in them a feeling of accomplishment.

1. Dedication to excellence:

Good teachers want the best from their students and themselves. They don’t settle for poor grades, knowing it reflects upon their ability to teach just as much upon a student’s ability to excel.

12. Never has enough time: Just about all good teachers are eternally busy, and this is not because of the volume of classes they have to teach. They prefer to be busy and know that the work of good teaching expands to fill every moment they can give it. They are most in demand for committee work, they put the most work into their class preparations. They are always trying something different or else refining what they have previously tried.

13. Think of teaching as a form of parenting:

Good teachers tend to find that the caring that goes into their teaching feels a lot like the caring that goes into parenting. It means knowing when to They consider their students, like their own children.

1. Discipline:

Good teachers are discipline They do not accept false excuses. They correct

immoral behaviours. They are not the easiest teachers because of this trait. Education is, in essence, thedisciplining of the mind. A student who knows the rules knows what to expect and knows what is right.

The Concept of motivation

The need to understand the general concept of motivation is as important to this study as it is an underlying factor in determining the worker's performance. Peoples behaviour is determined by what motivates them. Their performance is a product of both ability level and motivation. Obidigbo (2000) refers to motivation as the psychological processes that carouse, direct and maintain behaviour toward a goal. Sclorow (1995) says that motivation refers generally to regulation of need -satisfying and goal-seeking behaviour. It is the driving or pulling force, which results in persistent behaviour directed towards certain goals. Edem (1987) considers motivation as the general name for the fact that an organism's acts are partly determined by its own nature or internal structure. Mereni (1983) relates motivated state as guided and goal oriented. According to him, although, motivated behaviour moves in a specific direction, the behaviour of the organism is purposeful and persistent. He further observed that under motivated conditions, the organism's behaviour does not move in a half-haphazard manner, rather it is directed towards a selective goal which the individual sets for himself and according to him, the motive is terminated by the achievement of the goal.

According to Steer and Porter (1991) motivation is a set of force that

cause people to behave in certain ways. Steers and Porter believe that, motivation is primarily concerned with, how behaviour gets started, is energized, is sustained, is directed, is stopped and what kind of subjective reaction is presented in the organism while this is going on. Motivation is an emotion or desire operating on a person, mile and causing that person to act (Mathias and Jackson 1982). Uba (1980) define motivation in terms of job satisfaction. To him job satisfaction is an effective reaction of feeling by an employee on, how happy or satisfied he is with the job, supervision, coworkers pay and his current and future career progress and potentials. He further explains that motivations are those phenomena which are involved in the stimulation of action towards particular objective where previously there is little or no movement towards those goals. Peretomode (2003) refers to motivation as "the willful desire to direct one's behaviour towards goal".

General features common to motivation from these definitions are:

1 . It involves purposive, designated or goal-directed behaviour,

2. It deals with what starts and energizes human behaviour, how it is

directed and sustained,

3. it is related not only to behaviour but also to performance,

4. It, involves certain forces acting on or within a person (to initiate and direct behaviour), 5. It is not measured directly but inferred from behaviour and even attitudes.

People are motivated when they expect that the cause of action is likely to lead to the attainment of a valued reward that satisfies their needs. Well motivated people are those with clearly defined goals who take actions that they expect to achieve the most goals. The organization can provide the context within which high level of motivation, rewards and opportunities of learning the goals are conducive.

Consequently motivation may be seen as perceptions, methods, activities used by the management for the purpose of providing a climate hat is conducive to the satisfaction of the various needs of the employees so that they become satisfied, dedicated and effective in task performance. In the case of a teacher motivation causes, channels and directs his or her teaching behaviour towards better performance and job satisfaction.

Motivation and Teachers Job Performance

Performance is a situation where one agrees to do a task and do it efficiently or ability to move, quickly and operate efficiently or faithful in the performance of ones duties. There is a relationship between the performance of workers and the motivational factors inherent in their jobs. Ogbonnaya (2004) defines performance as an action or achievement, considered in relation to how well or how successful a person has done or executed an action. For instance, a secondary school principal has performed well if he attracts and maintains his staff, has a warm and cordial relationship with the school community, supervised instructional programmes of his school etc. Similarly a supervisor can increase his subordinates level of job performance first by raising their level of work motivation. Job performance increases when one perceives that increased performance leads to more reward. Olowo (1 983) remarked that good remunerations not only attract teachers but also retain them and make them perform more effectively. He added that unless attractive term of service enjoyed by expatriate teachers are extended to their equally qualified Business Educators will be ready to quit the teaching service at the earliest opportunity. According to Ojo (1980) the best way to make qualified teachers more effective in the performance of their teaching function, should be to motivate them through harmonization of their conditions of service, through fringe benefits, in-service training and promotion. This will ensure a mutual need-satisfaction acceptable to the teacher and the organization also. In order words this seems to assert that effective motivation system will elicit an effective job performance. According to Nworgu (1986) a manager whose office is well provided is likely to be moved in his work, have more sense of belonging and performs better than a, manager whose office is dirty and carelessly furnished. He further observed that workers in an organization that has medical facility, feel happy and proud being members of such organization compared with a worker in an organization where medical facility is lacking. Escalona (1 986) observed that motivation has particularly powerful and central role in professional lives. They expect it to provide satisfaction and economic security. He observed, however, that some workers instead of finding in organization a place to meet their expectation, find themselves in an environment in which they are constantly pushed to show increase in performance levels, while resources and support diminish continually, in which tasks are always added on but on task taking away, in which room for promotion and advancement are nearly non-existent, in which memos and directive are the means of communication in which what they have done is never so important as what they have not done. Nanassy, Malsbay and Tonne (1980) emphasized that just as textbooks must be selected and made available, adequate equipment and proper maintenance of equipment are also necessary for an effective job performance on the part of secondary school teachers. They further emphasized that some instructional materials like over head projector, flannel board, tape recording, film, black board, globe, chalk, pictures, maps, adding machines, data processing systems are basic and essential for secondary education subjects. Onyedele (1985) also observed that many institutions of learning, there is gross inadequate supply of business machines for effective instruction. He further explained that in some schools, typewriting course is being taught without type writer thereby frustrating the teachers' efforts towards effective performance. He concluded by saying that for Business Teachers to be responsive, adequate equipment and proper maintenance of equipment is necessary. There have also been contributions on the relationship between leadership styles and job performance of Business teachers Ndu (1984) indicated that "while job satisfaction does not cause good performance, it directly affects individual's decision to continue participating in the organization". This implies that the greater the individual's satisfaction with the job, the greater his performance in the job. Ndu further, suggests that each

organization should therefore look into the factors affecting job satisfaction of workers in order to retain them especially the competent ones. Commitment to the organization has been seen as the nature of

relationship such that a highly committed member of the organization will demonstrate.

1. A strong desire or remain part of the organization,

2. Willingness to exert high level of effort on behalf of the organization and

3. A definite belief in and acceptance of the value and goals of the

organization.

Dedication a worker has to his work is a process of reciprocation between the employee and the organization. The organization pays him, gives him status and job security, and does not ask him to do things outside his work description. In exchange the employee reciprocates by hard work and a good day's job, avoiding damaging the image of the organization. Employee expects the organization to be fair and just to him; the organization in turn expects the employee to be loyal.

A work's willingness to perform well in any organization is influenced by the rewards he has received from the organization and the experiences he has to under go to receive them. The greater the rewards received the greater the person's attachment, and the greater the obstacles the person has overcome in order to obtain the organization's rewards the greater his commitment. A number of variables within the environment can influence the individual and can make some impact on both his level of motivation and job performance thus effecting his retention. Such variables include socio-economic factors, politics, age, sex and experience. For example increase in age implies the accumulation of valued resources in the organization and the desire to change from the organization is reduced. The older workers whose careers have been fully developed in an organization are more committed to their work than younger ones who have not invested much in the organization. The greater the experience and seniority, the less the expressed desire to leave the organization. Obi (1997) holds a similar view when he stated that age binds one more tightly to the organization. For instance the pension plan. The importance of high job performance in every organization cannot be over-emphasized. It involves the utilization of all available resources, especially the human resources.

Teachers Productivity

Productivity is a concept often misinterpreted with efficiency by many people. However, both concepts exhibit similarity, yet they are different economic concepts. In the formal educational system, both concepts each refer to a different relationship between inputs and outputs. Inputs are the resources used to produce education, such as per-student expenditures; student-teacher ratios; teacher education, experience, and salary; school facilities; and administrative factors, the teachers’ time; buildings; learning materials; equipment; students, time, etc. While outputs are the products of education such as the number of students who are educated, their qualifications, their cognitive learning, the cultural, sporting and life skills they have obtained, the welfare services provided by the schools, etc, (Marginson, 1991). It is important to note that output is distinct from objectives. While objectives encompass broad purpose of education service, for example, vocational training, intellectual, physical growth of the students, etc, output, on the other hand, refers to the specific means by which these broad objectives are achieved. For instance, equality of opportunity or access to education is an objective, but achieving a target of 40% female access of the available opportunity in that form of education is an output. Thus, while efficiency is more concerned with the internal cost of the production process, productivity, in its own right, focuses more on output. Productivity can best be understood as output per unit of measured input. When comparing productivity, we hold input constant while output is allowed to vary. For example, we can hold the service of a teacher constant while expecting his output to increase, that is, we vary his or her output. Thus, productivity increases when the same input leads to a greater output than before. Productivity can either be measured in money or physical terms. In classical term, productivity can be defined as physical output per unit of labour time (Kendrick, 1985). Thus, when we talk of higher productivity, it enables us to evaluate the number of products the worker has produced with the given input available to the workers. School productivity invariably refers to the results that a school system is achieving for a given level of inputs. According to Babalola (2009), the general belief is that productivity can be increased by increasing the labour supply, increasing the hour worked and increasing wages. However, greater productivity does not come from spending more or from working harder, but smarter (Ashenden, 1990). The bottom line therefore is that productivity is concerned mainly with the maximization of output. The question therefore relates to how many students have we been able to influence positively as teachers? The greater the number, the greater our productivity in absolute terms. In this way therefore, we define productivity in terms of the goal satisfaction which is measured by the relationship between services rendered to our consumers/clients (students) and the broad objectives of the educational system (Tegle, 1988; Commonwealth Tertiary Education Commission, 1986; in Marginson 1991). Although these concepts and definitions are not exhaustive, the focus of productivity in education is centered mainly on the output of the teachers in terms of their ability to increase the learning achievement of students through an effective classroom interaction and management.

Reasons for Low Teacher Productivity in Schools

Generally, the research exploring teacher motivational issues in Nigeria shows that teachers are poorly motivated and are dissatisfied with their living and working conditions. The key reasons for this are as follows:

• Low wages when compared with other professionals

• Low status in the society

• Lack of career advancement opportunities

• High student-teacher ratio

• Poor work environment

• Inadequate fringe benefits

• Irregular payment of teachers’ salaries. According to the literature, these conditions are responsible for low teachers’ morale and productivity and the difficulty in attracting and retaining quality personnel into the teaching profession. This has not always been the case. A broad consensus is that, prior to independence, teaching was considered by almost all sections of society as a highly respected profession. Teachers played key leadership roles in local communities and acted as role models. However, after independence, when the demand for educated labour grew rapidly, many teachers left the profession to take up jobs elsewhere in the public and private sector. According to Obanya (1999), this marked the beginning of the teachers’ motivation crisis in Nigeria, as the public began to look down on those teachers who remained in the classroom as second-string public servants. The growing tendency for school leavers to opt for teaching only if they are unable to find other more lucrative public or private sector employment further compounded this problem of lowered professional status (Lawal 2000). According to Dr. Owusu (The Punch Newspapers, 2004), who once led the accreditation team of the National Commission for Colleges of Education, remarked that the teaching profession in Nigeria had been relegated to the background and that teaching is not accorded the respect it deserves. A major finding in a study by Kazeem (1999) is that teachers and other school workers tend to remain contented and reasonably motivated as long as salaries are paid on time and they are promoted regularly. Much earlier, Eton (1984) also identified the payment of salaries, allowances and promotion as the key factors that shape teachers’ attitudes towards their work. Similarly, Amadi (1983), also concluded that the irregular payment of salaries is one of the major problems facing the teaching profession in Nigeria. According to Mbanefoh (1982), practising teachers are particularly concerned about the late payment of salaries and the non-payment of fringe benefits rather than other non-monetary incentives. School principals often complained about teachers not willing to work because of delays in payment of their salaries (Ayeni, 2005). Ubom (2002), found that in Nigeria, prompt payment of salaries induced greater commitment to teaching. According to Adelabu (2005), another major source of teachers’ dissatisfaction in Nigeria arises from disparities between the teaching profession and other professions, such as nursing, with respect to the time and mode of payment of salaries, fringe benefits, promotion prospects and working conditions. However, no consensus exists on the extent to which financial inducements are the really critical motivators. Research has shown that monetary reward in itself has not improved teachers’ low esteem and their productivity. Youlonfoun (1992), argues that, although good salaries and their prompt payment are important motivating factors, there is evidence that other factors can undermine commitment to teaching. It was therefore not a surprise when Akinwumi (2000) and Ejiogu (1990) found that what the typical low income earning teacher yearns for is a sizeable salary increase, and they conclude that the payment of a living wage would significantly enhance their commitment and performance.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Herzberg's motivation-Hygiene Theory:

Herzberg's two-factor theory describes needs in terms of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Frederick Herzberg examined motivation in the light of job content and context. Mullins (1996) says that motivating employees is a two-step process. First provide hygiene's and then motivators. One continuum ranges from no satisfaction to satisfaction. The other continuum ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction. Satisfaction comes from motivators that are intrinsic or job content. They include: Achievement; Recognition; Advancement (promotion); Responsibility; The work itself and Growth. Herzberg uses the term motivators for job stisfiers since they involve job content and the satisfaction that results from them. Motivators are considered as job turn-Ons. They are necessary for substantial improvements in work performance and move the employee beyond satisfaction to superior performance. Motivators correspond to Maslow's high -level needs of esteem and self-actualization. Dissatisfaction occurs when the following hygiene factors, extrinsic or job context, are not present on the job. Salary Status Job security Working conditions Company policy Supervision Interpersonal relations with superiors. Herzberg uses the term hygiene for these factors because they are preventive in nature. They will not produce motivation, but they can prevent motivation from occurring. Hygiene factors can be considered as job stay-Ons because they encourage an employee to stay on a job. Once these factors are provided, they do not necessarily promote motivation, but their absence can create employee dissatisfaction. The opposite of dissatisfaction. The opposite of dissatisfaction is not satisfaction but, simply, no dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors correspond to Maslow's physiological, safety and social needs in that they job. To motivate workers to give their best the managerladministrator must give proper attention to the motivators or growth factors. Management should never deny people proper treatment at work.

McClellanal's achievement motivation theory

McClelland divides motivation into three -needs for power needs for affiliation and needs for achievement. These three needs according to him are of special relevance to management since all of them must be recognized to make an organized enterprise work well. According to him the need for achievement is the most critical to the success of an individual in an organization. McClelland says that a predominance of any of these needs in an individual is manifested in the management style of an organization, and the employee reaction to the management styles of an organization.Ejiogu (1980) posited that the probability that an individual will perform a job effectively and efficiently depends on a combination of the strength of the motive or need relative to other needs. Achievement motivated people thrive on pursuing and attaining goals. They like to be able to control the situations in which they are involved. Individual with a high achievement is afraid of failure and tries his best to succeed in all situations. He likes instant feed back on his performance as to ascertain whether he is succeeding or failing thus likes to take personal responsibility for his actions. Power needs: Power motivated individuals see almost every situation as an opportunity to seize control or dominate others. They love to influence others. They like to change situations whether or not it is needed. They are willing to assert themselves when a decision needs to be made.Affiliation motivated people are usually friendly and like to socialize with others. This may distract them from their performance requirements. The usually respond to an appeal for cooperation. McClelland opined that the extent of achievement motivation varies between individuals. Some people think about achievement a lot more than others. Some people rate very highly in achievement motivation. They are challenged by opportunities and work hard to achieve a goal. Other people rate very low in achievement motivation. They do not care much and have little urge to achieve. For people with a high achievement motivation, money is not an incentive but may serve as a means of giving feed back on performance. High a achievers seem unlikely to remain long with an organization that does not pay them well for good performance. McClelland suggests that achievement is not hereditary but results from environmental influences. According to him, all human motives are learned in the environment, irrespective of their nature. He has investigated the possibility of training people to develop a greater motivation to achieve. In the school system teachers who are not performing effectively, can be trained by organizing in-service training, seminars, conferences, workshops etc. The only problem with this theory is its applicability and the fund to be used to provide training programme needed for proper development of these needs.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Mullins (1996) asserted that Vroom was the first person to proposes an expectancy theory aimed specifically at work motivation. His model is based on three key variables: Valence, Instrumentality and Expectancy (VIE theory or expectancy). Pereto mode (2003) believes that expectancy theory is based on the fact that people are influenced by expected results of their actions. Motivation is a function of the relationship between a. Effort expended and perceived level of performance and b. The expectation that rewards (desired out comes) will be related to performance. There must also be c. The expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) are available. Performance therefore depends upon the perceived expectation regarding effort expended and achieving the desired outcome. For instance, the desire for promotion will result in high performance only if the person believes there is a strong expectation that this will lead to promotion. If however, the person believes promotion to be based solely on age and length of service, there is no motivation to achieve high performance. A person's behaviour reflects conscious choice between the comparative evaluations of alternative behaviours. The choice of behaviour is based on the expectancy of most favourable consequences. This expectancy theory is linked to many writers like Vroom, Porter and Lawler. The theory is derived from the relationship between efforts, performance and outcome or rewards.

The theory is concerned with choice behaviour that can lead to desired outcomes or rewards. If the individual worker believes that working hard everyday will lead to a desired pay increase. Expectancy theory would predict that this is the motivated behaviour that he or she will choose. Expectancy refers to the perceived probability that a given level of efforts will yield specified performance level (out come or sets of outcomes). Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to first-order outcomes, any workrelated behaviour that is the direct result of the effort an employee expends on a job. Outcome could be informed of pay increase, promotion, recognition or fringe benefits. On the whole, expectancy theory predicts that a teacher will attend classes very well if he perceives that students' performance will earn himlher promotion and other benefits.